The Decline of the Mughals and 18th-Century India: Regional Powers and British Ascendancy — Part 4: 2. Regional Successor States
The decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century led to the emergence of regional successor states like Hyderabad, Awadh, and Bengal, which maintained nominal allegiance to Delhi while establishing de facto independence and unique political structures.
At a glance
Established by Nizam-ul-Mulk, it became independent in practice while maintaining Mughal traditions.
Led by Saadat Khan, it achieved economic prosperity and stability through reforms and military action against zamindars.
Governed by Murshid Quli Khan and his successors, it asserted independence while managing foreign trade and maintaining a diverse administration.
Modern India — Part 1 of 5
2. Regional Successor States
The first category of regional formation consisted of former Mughal provincial governors who established de facto independent states while maintaining formal allegiance to Delhi. The breakaway occurred in stages — individual revolts by governors, followed by the rallying of local elites, and finally regional consolidation. Zamindari revolts against imperial revenue demands had triggered the loosening of provincial ties; governors responded by building local support rather than depending on an increasingly unreliable centre. Importantly, links with the centre were maintained and Mughal tradition continued: Awadh and Hyderabad both came to the help of the Mughals when Nadir Shah invaded Delhi. Muzaffar Alam's concept of "transformation" rather than "collapse" aptly describes this process — a new political order constructed within the Mughal institutional framework.
2.1 Hyderabad — Nizam-ul-Mulk
Nizam-ul-Mulk Chin Qilich Khan, a prominent Mughal noble, assisted Muhammad Shah in deposing the Saiyid Brothers in 1720. He was given the office of Subadar of the Deccan. After a brief stint as wazir at Delhi (1722–1724), he returned south and in 1724 established what was independent in practice though nominally Mughal. He reorganised the administration, streamlined the revenue system, subdued refractory zamindars, and pursued a policy of religious tolerance towards the Hindu majority. As Karen Leonard's scholarship on Hyderabad's political system demonstrates, the formation of a regional elite gave stability to this independence.
His death in 1748 exposed Hyderabad to grave instability. A bloody succession war erupted between his son Nasir Jang and his grandson Muzaffar Jang, providing French Governor-General Dupleix the perfect opening for intervention. Dupleix backed Muzaffar Jang, who rewarded France with significant territorial and monetary concessions including the Northern Sarkars, Masulipatnam, and villages near Pondicherry. Hyderabad was simultaneously battered by Maratha invasions that imposed chauth on its population with impunity.
2.2 Awadh — Saadat Khan
Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk was appointed Governor of Awadh in 1722 and gradually secured its independence. His primary challenge was posed by powerful zamindars who refused to pay land revenue and maintained their own forts and armies. Saadat Khan subdued them militarily and introduced a new land settlement that extended protection to peasants from zamindar exploitation. He reformed the jagirdari system, granting jagirs to the local gentry and integrating them — including Shaikhzadas, Afghans, and sections of Hindus — into the administration and army, thereby creating a stable "regional ruling group." The state's economic prosperity was notable: on Nadir Shah's invasion, the Nawab of Awadh was able to pay 3 crores of rupees. Muzaffar Alam's analysis confirms that Awadh experienced economic growth even as other parts of north India stagnated, providing a stable polity on the basis of economic prosperity.
2.3 Bengal — Murshid Quli Khan
Murshid Quli Khan became Governor of Bengal in 1717 under Mughal aegis, but his link with Delhi amounted to little more than sending tribute. Independence in practice and allegiance in name to Delhi marked the rule of the Nawabs of Bengal. His successors Shuja-ud-din (1727–1739) and Alivardi Khan (1739–1756) deepened Bengal's de facto independence. The Bengal nawabs did not discriminate on religious grounds in making public appointments; Hindus reached high positions in the civil service and obtained lucrative zamindaris. The nawabs maintained strict control over the foreign trading companies, refusing to allow fortifications in French and English factories at Chandernagore and Calcutta, and insisting that their sovereignty be upheld even against British threats of force.
Siraj-ud-daula, who succeeded Alivardi Khan in 1756, continued this assertive stance but was defeated at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 — a result produced as much by the conspiracy of his own commander Mir Jafar and the treachery of his court as by British arms. The Nawabs suffered defeat partly because of their weak and meagre army and their underestimation of the danger posed by the Company. The British victory at Plassey inaugurated a fundamentally new phase in the history of India.