Delhi Sultanate: Slave Dynasty and the Mamluk Sultans 1206–1290
Delhi Sultanate Slave Dynasty (also called Mamluk Dynasty) was the first Islamic sultanate in India, founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1206 after the death of Muhammad of Ghor, establishing the foundati...
Delhi Sultanate Slave Dynasty (also called Mamluk Dynasty) was the first Islamic sultanate in India, founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1206 after the death of Muhammad of Ghor, establishing the foundations of Turkish rule that would shape northern India's political, cultural, and administrative landscape for over three centuries.
What Were the Origins of the Delhi Sultanate?
The Delhi Sultanate did not arise in a vacuum — it was the consequence of the Ghurid conquests of northern India in the late 12th century:
- First Battle of Tarain (1191): Prithviraj Chahamana defeated Muhammad of Ghor (Ghuri)
- Second Battle of Tarain (1192): Muhammad of Ghor defeated and killed Prithviraj Chahamana; opened the Gangetic plains to Ghurid conquest
- Battle of Chandawar (1194): Ghurid forces defeated Jaichandra (Gahadavala ruler of Kannauj), consolidating control over the Doab
- Muhammad of Ghor appointed his Turkish slave generals as governors; when he was assassinated in 1206, these governors became independent rulers
- Qutb-ud-din Aibak declared himself sultan at Lahore in 1206 — founding the Slave Dynasty
The term "Slave Dynasty" is a misnomer — while early sultans were indeed purchased slaves (mamluks) who rose through military merit, slavery in this context carried no social stigma in Islamic political theory; the caliphs themselves employed slave soldiers. A better term is "Mamluk Sultanate."
Who Were the Major Sultans of the Slave Dynasty?
| Sultan | Reign | Key Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Qutb-ud-din Aibak | 1206–1210 | Founder; began Qutb Minar; called "Lakh Baksh" (giver of lakhs in charity) |
| Aram Shah | 1210–1211 | Weak ruler; overthrown by nobles |
| Iltutmish | 1211–1236 | True consolidator; moved capital to Delhi; completed Qutb Minar; issued first silver tanka; received investiture from Abbasid Caliph |
| Razia Sultana | 1236–1240 | First woman ruler of Delhi Sultanate; deposed by Turkish nobles (Chahalgani/Forty) |
| Bahram Shah, Masud Shah | 1240–1246 | Weak rulers dominated by the Forty |
| Nasir-ud-din Mahmud | 1246–1265 | Pious sultan; real power with Balban |
| Ghiyasuddin Balban | 1266–1286 | Established theory of divine kingship; broke power of the Forty; strengthened central authority |
| Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad | 1286–1290 | Degenerate ruler; Balban's line ended; replaced by Khaljis |
What Were Iltutmish's Key Contributions?
Iltutmish (1211–1236) is rightly considered the true founder of the Delhi Sultanate as a viable state:
- Shifted capital to Delhi from Lahore — more strategically located for controlling the Gangetic plains
- Received investiture (1229) from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad — giving his sultanate Islamic legitimacy
- Introduced the silver tanka (coinage system) and copper jital — monetary system for the sultanate
- Completed Qutb Minar (started by Aibak) and built the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque ("Might of Islam") — the first mosque in India
- Organised the Iqta system (grant of revenue assignments to military commanders) as the administrative backbone
- Repelled Mongol threat: Managed the Mongol invasion threat by submission and diplomatic manoeuvre
- Nominated Razia as successor — revolutionary for medieval Islamic polity
Who Was Razia Sultana and Why Was She Deposed?
Razia al-Din (1236–1240) was the first and only woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Iltutmish had nominated her as the most capable of his children, bypassing his sons. She came to the throne by popular acclamation after the incompetent Ruknuddin Firuz was deposed.
- Razia appeared in public unveiled, held court without purdah, and wore male attire
- She was an able administrator and skilled equestrian
- The Turkish nobility (Chahalgani — "The Forty") resented a woman ruler's authority over them
- Her close relationship with her Ethiopian slave-commander Yakut (whom she appointed as Amir-i-Akhur, head of the royal stables) became a pretext for rebellion
- Malik Altunia of Bhatinda rebelled; Razia was captured; she married Altunia to secure his support; they marched on Delhi but were defeated
- Razia and Altunia were killed by robbers in 1240
What Was Balban's Theory of Kingship?
Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266–1286) was the most powerful personality of the Slave Dynasty. His political theory had several key elements:
- Divine Kingship (Zil-i-Ilahi): The king is the "Shadow of God on Earth" — his authority is divinely sanctioned; rebellion against the king is rebellion against God
- Persian court ceremonial: Introduced the Persian practices of Sijda (prostration before the king) and Paibos (kissing the sultan's feet); made the court strictly hierarchical
- Broke the power of the Forty: Systematically eliminated or humiliated the powerful Turkish nobles who had dominated the sultanate since Iltutmish's time
- Reorganised the army: Created a strong standing army loyal to the crown; appointed his sons as provincial governors
- Suppressed internal revolts: Ruthlessly crushed the Mewati bandits near Delhi who had made the capital's environs dangerous
- Blood and Iron policy: No mercy shown to rebels — policy of exemplary punishment to deter disloyalty
Frequently Asked Questions
Who founded the Delhi Sultanate and when?
The Delhi Sultanate was founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1206 CE, after the assassination of his master Muhammad of Ghor (Ghuri). Aibak, a Turkish slave-general who had served as Muhammad's viceroy in India, declared himself independent sultan at Lahore. He is also known as "Lakh Baksh" for his generous charity. He died in 1210 after falling from his horse during a polo game.
Why is the first dynasty called the Slave Dynasty?
The first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate is called the Slave Dynasty because its early rulers — Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish, and Balban — were all originally purchased slaves (mamluks) who rose through military service. In Islamic political culture, slave soldiers (mamluks) could rise to the highest offices; slavery was not a permanent social stigma. The term "Mamluk Sultanate" is technically more accurate.
What was the Iqta system?
The Iqta system was the primary administrative and military arrangement of the Delhi Sultanate. An Iqta was the right to collect revenue from a designated territory (not ownership of the land) granted to a military commander or noble (called an Iqtadar or Muqti) in lieu of salary. The Iqtadar maintained soldiers from this revenue and was also responsible for law and order in the territory. Iltutmish systematised this arrangement; Alauddin Khalji later reorganised it extensively.
What was Balban's theory of divine kingship?
Balban's theory of divine kingship (Zil-i-Ilahi — Shadow of God) held that the sultan's authority was divinely ordained — he was God's representative on earth, and rebellion against him was rebellion against God. Balban enforced strict court ceremonies (Sijda/prostration, Paibos/kissing the sultan's feet), maintained austere dignity, never smiled in public, and allowed no informal contact. This theory centralised authority and justified the elimination of powerful nobles who challenged the crown.
What happened to the Slave Dynasty after Balban?
Balban's capable son Prince Muhammad Khan was killed in a Mongol battle in 1285, which broke Balban's spirit. He died in 1286. His weak grandson Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad ruled until 1290, when a powerful noble, Jalal-ud-din Khalji, had him killed and seized the throne. This ended the Slave Dynasty and began the Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320), which would produce the empire's greatest territorial conqueror, Alauddin Khalji.
Sources and Further Reading
According to IGNOU's BHIC-132 (Ancient India: 300 BCE to 1206 CE) and BHIC-133 (Medieval India), the Slave Dynasty established the fundamental institutions — Iqta system, Persian bureaucratic culture, Sultanate's Islamic legitimacy — that would define Delhi Sultanate governance for all subsequent dynasties, making the 1206–1290 period the formative era of medieval Indian political history.
- IGNOU BHIC-133: Medieval India — Blocks on Delhi Sultanate
- K.A. Nizami, Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the 13th Century
- Irfan Habib, The Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol. I
- A.B.M. Habibullah, The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India