The Gupta Empire: The Golden Age of India — Part 5: Society and Religion
Part 5: Gupta society — revival of varna system, deterioration of women's status, slavery, Brahmanical revival (Vaishnavism, Shaivism), and toleration of Buddhism (Nalanda) and Jainism.
Ancient India — Part 5 of 5
4. Society
4.1 Varna and Caste
The Gupta period witnessed the strong revival of the Brahmanical varna system in both theory and social practice. The ideal order of four varnas — Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra — was expected to be upheld by the king, and Brahmanical Dharmashastras provided the ideological framework. However, real society was far more complex: the Dharmashastras themselves acknowledged the gap between ideal and reality by theorising that numerous jatis arose through inter-varna marriages (varna-samkara). Foreign ruling families of the pre-Gupta period — of Greek or Scythian origin — were absorbed as vratya-Kshatriyas (semi-Kshatriyas of impure origin).
Craftsmen and artisans generally held lower social status than the three upper varnas, and different craft groups formed distinct jatis: Kumbhakaras (potters), Suvarnakaras (goldsmiths), etc. Village landholders called Gramikas, Kutumbis, and Mahattaras participated in land transactions and held influence in rural society. The antyajas (untouchables) — including Chandalas and Charmakaras — were considered impure and were excluded from the varna scheme. Their physical presence in areas frequented by higher varnas was not allowed.
4.2 Position of Women
The position of women, particularly from upper varnas, deteriorated during the Gupta period. Brahmanical texts set narrow norms for women — their primary role was that of an ideal wife and ideal mother. Many Brahmanical texts equated women with Shudras in terms of social status and rights. Land grants were regularly given to Brahmin men, but Brahmin women received no such grants.
Notable exceptions existed: the Vakataka queen Prabhavatigupta (daughter of Chandragupta II, regent of the Vakataka kingdom after Rudrasena II's death) wielded considerable political authority. Literary texts, including the Kamasutra, provide descriptions of the life of affluent women in cities, though this represented only a privileged minority.
4.3 Slavery
Slavery existed in Gupta society. Slaves worked in agricultural fields and domestic settings. The Kamasutra of Vatsyayana — written during the Gupta period — records the exploitation of domestic female slaves by their masters. Ordinary cultivators who tilled others' land for a share of the produce occupied a similarly disadvantaged position. The number of taxes imposed by the state on producers also increased in this period, and the practice of vishti (unpaid forced labour) added to the burden of the producing classes.
5. Religion
5.1 Revival of Brahmanical Religion (Vaishnavism, Shaivism)
The Gupta period is characterised by the strong revival of Brahmanical Hinduism, particularly Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Gupta rulers were largely Vaishnava — described as Paramabhagavata (devoted to Vishnu) — and royal patronage drove an extensive programme of temple-building and image installation. The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh bears relief panels depicting scenes from Vaishnava mythology. Shaiva shrines like the Bhumara Shiva temple (Satna, MP) and the Nachna-Kuthara Parvati temple (Panna, MP) testify to Shaiva patronage as well.
Land grants to Brahmanas — creating Agraharas and Brahmadiyas — reinforced Brahmanical supremacy across the empire. The Ramayana and Mahabharata are believed to have been compiled and given their final form around the 4th–5th centuries CE. Sanskrit became the official language of the Gupta court and all Gupta inscriptions are in Sanskrit, reversing the earlier Buddhist and Jaina influence of Pali and Prakrit.
5.2 Buddhism and Jainism under the Guptas
Despite the Brahmanical revival, the Gupta rulers extended toleration and even patronage to Buddhism and Jainism. Fa-Hien's account records thriving Buddhist monasteries and stupa complexes. Notably, even Mahayana Buddhist scholars shifted from Pali and Prakrit to Sanskrit for composing their texts — a significant concession to the cultural dominance of Sanskrit. The rise of the Nalanda monastery as a major centre of Buddhist learning began in this period.
Jainism continued to receive patronage. Inscriptions on Jaina image pedestals at Vidisha bearing the name Ramagupta testify to royal association. The Udayagiri cave complex near Sanchi contains both Brahmanical and Buddhist shrines, reflecting the plural religious landscape.