Harshavardhana: The Last Great Hindu Emperor, Nalanda University and Xuanzang's Account
Harshavardhana was the last great Hindu emperor of north India, known for his patronage of Nalanda University, which became a premier center of learning, documented by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang.
At a glance
The last great Hindu emperor, ruled from 606 to 647 CE, known for unifying north India and patronizing Nalanda University.
The greatest center of learning in ancient India, expanded by Harshavardhana, with approximately 10,000 students and 2,000 professors at its peak.
A Chinese pilgrim whose account provides crucial insights into 7th-century India, including the political and educational landscape under Harshavardhana.
In 1193 CE, Nalanda was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji, leading to a significant decline of Buddhism in India.
Harshavardhana, Nalanda University, Xuanzang, Buddhist patronage, and north India are inseparably linked: Emperor Harsha (c. 606–647 CE), who unified most of north India from his capital at Kanauj, was the greatest patron of Nalanda in its golden age, and Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang's eyewitness account remains our primary source for the university's 7th-century splendour.
Who Was Harshavardhana and How Did He Rise to Power?
Harshavardhana ruled the kingdom of Kanauj in the Gangetic plain from approximately 606 to 647 CE. His father, Prabhakaravardhana, died while Harsha was still a teenager. Shortly afterwards, his elder brother Rajyavardhana was treacherously killed by Shashanka, the powerful king of Gauda (Bengal). Harsha, barely sixteen years old, assumed command of the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty and launched a campaign of revenge and political consolidation.
He rescued his sister Rajyashri, who had been imprisoned by Shashanka, and gradually extended his authority across the greater part of north India — from the Himalayas in the north to the Narmada River in the south, and from Assam in the east to Punjab and Rajasthan in the west. One of the few significant setbacks Harsha faced was his confrontation with the Chalukya king Pulakesi II (c. 618–619 CE), who halted his southward expansion near the Narmada. The Narmada thus became the effective boundary between Harsha's empire and the Deccan powers — a rare military defeat for an otherwise triumphant ruler.
Harsha was not merely a conqueror. He was a scholar-king of rare distinction. His court poet Banabhatta composed the Harshacharita, widely regarded as the first biography in Sanskrit literature and one of the finest prose compositions in the language. Harsha himself authored three Sanskrit plays: Priyadarshika, Ratnavali, and Nagananda — the last bearing a distinctly Buddhist theme that reflects his deepening personal commitment to the faith. He organized grand quinquennial assemblies (maha-mokshaparishad) at Kanauj and Prayaga (modern Allahabad), at which he gave away the entire contents of the royal treasury — including his personal jewellery — to scholars, monks, the poor, and pilgrims. Xuanzang records that at one such assembly Harsha had to borrow a simple garment from his sister to wear home.
What Made Nalanda University the Greatest Centre of Learning in the Ancient World?
Nalanda University, situated in Bihar south of modern Patna near the town of Nalanda, was the intellectual capital of the ancient world for several centuries. Originally founded under the Gupta emperor Kumaragupta I (c. 427 CE), it was dramatically expanded and richly endowed by Harshavardhana. At its zenith in the 7th century CE, it was an institution without rival in the known world.
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Location | Bihar, near modern Nalanda town, south of Patna |
| Founded by | Kumaragupta I (Gupta dynasty, c. 427 CE); greatly expanded by Harshavardhana |
| Number of students | Approximately 10,000 — from India, China, Korea, Japan, and Central Asia |
| Number of teachers | Approximately 2,000 professors |
| Colleges and buildings | 8 colleges; multiple monastery complexes; 3 great library buildings |
| Library (Dharmaganja) | Estimated 9 million manuscripts; known as the "Treasury of Truth" |
| Subjects taught | Buddhist philosophy (all major schools), Vedic texts, logic, grammar, medicine, astronomy, mathematics |
| Famous scholars | Nagarjuna (Madhyamaka), Dignaga, Dharmakirti, Shilabhadra (Xuanzang's teacher) |
| Destruction | Burned by Bakhtiyar Khilji (Turkish general under Muhammad of Ghor), c. 1193 CE |
| Modern revival | Nalanda University refounded in 2014 near the original site under a Parliamentary Act |
Entry to Nalanda was extraordinarily competitive. Xuanzang records that learned gatekeepers would examine each aspiring student at the gate and that only about one in ten applicants passed. The institution welcomed students regardless of origin or religious background, though Buddhist studies remained the core curriculum. Nalanda's great library — the Dharmaganja — was spread across three large buildings and was said to contain some nine million manuscripts covering every branch of knowledge then known to the Indian world.
What Did Xuanzang Observe During His Visit to Harsha's Court and Nalanda?
Xuanzang (also transliterated as Hiuen Tsang, c. 602–664 CE) was the most consequential Chinese Buddhist pilgrim ever to visit India. He departed China in 629 CE and spent approximately fifteen years travelling across Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent before returning in 645 CE. His primary purpose was to study Buddhist texts and philosophy at Nalanda under the revered scholar Shilabhadra, who was at that time over a hundred years old. Legend records that Shilabhadra had received a vision instructing him to await a Chinese monk who would come to receive the Dharma.
Xuanzang's account — the Da Tang Xiyuji ("Great Tang Records on the Western Regions") — is an irreplaceable historical document. It describes in meticulous detail the political geography, social conditions, religious life, economic activity, and cultural practices of dozens of kingdoms he traversed. For 7th-century India specifically, it is often more precise and reliable than any surviving domestic source. His description of Nalanda University covers its physical layout, the rigour of its academic life, the quality of its scholars, the competitiveness of its entry process, and the daily routine of students and teachers. Without Xuanzang, much of what we know about Harsha's reign and Nalanda's golden era would be lost.
At Harsha's court, Xuanzang was received with great honour. He attended the great quinquennial assembly at Kanauj, which he describes as lasting approximately 23 days and drawing enormous audiences from across the subcontinent. Xuanzang's account characterises Harsha as generous to the poor, personally austere, deeply religious, and keenly interested in debate and scholarship. He describes a king who personally toured his kingdom every few months to hear petitions and dispense justice — a claim corroborated by Banabhatta's Harshacharita.
Xuanzang also illuminates Harsha's complex religious identity. Though the Vardhana dynasty had Shaivite roots and Harsha retained reverence for Shiva, he was drawn increasingly to Buddhism during his reign. He forbade the slaughter of animals in his kingdom. Buddhist imagery appears on his coins. Yet he never wholly abandoned Brahmanical traditions, and he patronized scholars of multiple faiths — reflecting the characteristically syncretic spirit of Indian religion in the 7th century.
How Did the Destruction of Nalanda Shape the Fate of Buddhism in India?
Around 1193 CE, the forces of Bakhtiyar Khilji — a Turkish general in the service of Muhammad of Ghor — swept through Bihar and razed Nalanda. Later accounts describe the great library burning for weeks or months; thousands of monks were killed or driven out. The survivors fled, primarily to Tibet and Southeast Asia, carrying manuscripts and scholarly traditions with them.
This catastrophic act had profound and lasting consequences. Buddhism, which had already been in gradual institutional decline in the subcontinent for several centuries, effectively lost its intellectual and organizational core. The Tibetan Buddhist tradition — particularly the Vajrayana school — is in large measure a preservation of the Nalanda scholarly lineage. Tibetan monks had visited Nalanda for generations, and after the destruction, the texts they had carried home became the custodians of Nalanda's legacy. Similarly, Buddhism in Southeast Asia owes much to monks who fled with manuscripts in the aftermath of Bakhtiyar's raids. The destruction of Nalanda is cited by historians as a pivotal reason why Buddhism, which originated in India, virtually disappeared from the subcontinent while thriving throughout the rest of Asia.
After Harsha's death in 647 CE, his empire had no clear successor and rapidly fragmented. North India entered a prolonged period of smaller, competing regional kingdoms — the early medieval Rajput era — until the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the early 13th century. In this historical arc, Harshavardhana stands as a genuine watershed: the last ruler of ancient India to impose a meaningful degree of political unity on the north, and the last great imperial patron of Nalanda before its extinction.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who wrote the biography of Harshavardhana, and what is its significance?
The biography of Harshavardhana was written by his court poet Banabhatta and is titled the Harshacharita. It is considered the first biography in Sanskrit literature and one of the finest examples of Sanskrit prose style. The work provides valuable historical details about Harsha's rise to power, his family background, and the political circumstances of his early reign, making it an essential primary source for 7th-century north India.
What subjects were taught at Nalanda University, and who attended it?
Nalanda University taught a wide curriculum including Buddhist philosophy (all major schools — Hinayana, Mahayana, and Vajrayana), Vedic texts, logic, grammar, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics. At its peak, it had approximately 10,000 students from India, China, Korea, Japan, and Central Asia, served by around 2,000 professors. Entry was highly competitive — Xuanzang records that only about one in ten applicants was admitted after a rigorous oral examination at the gate.
Why was Xuanzang's account historically important for understanding Harshavardhana's India?
Xuanzang's Da Tang Xiyuji ("Great Tang Records on the Western Regions") is one of the most detailed eyewitness accounts of 7th-century India ever produced. It describes the political geography, social life, religious conditions, and economic activity of dozens of Indian kingdoms. For Harsha's reign specifically, it is often more reliable and more detailed than any surviving Indian source, and it provides unique first-hand descriptions of Nalanda University, Harsha's court assemblies at Kanauj and Prayaga, and the emperor's personal character and religious life.
Why did Harshavardhana fail to conquer south India?
Harshavardhana was defeated by the Chalukya king Pulakesi II around 618–619 CE when he attempted to expand south of the Narmada River. This is considered one of the very few significant military setbacks in Harsha's career. The Narmada thereafter served as the effective boundary between Harsha's north Indian empire and the Deccan kingdoms, powerfully demonstrating the military strength of Chalukya power in the western Deccan and the natural limits of any north Indian imperial project.
What happened to Buddhism in India after the destruction of Nalanda?
The destruction of Nalanda by Bakhtiyar Khilji around 1193 CE devastated Buddhist institutional life in India. The great library (Dharmaganja) was burned and thousands of monks were killed or displaced. Survivors fled to Tibet and Southeast Asia, carrying the Nalanda scholarly tradition with them. Buddhism, already in decline in the subcontinent, effectively ceased to exist as a major institutional force in India, while surviving and flourishing in Tibet, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Asia.
Sources and Further Reading
According to IGNOU's BHIC-132 (History of India from c. 300 to 1206 CE) course material, Harshavardhana represents a pivotal transitional figure between the post-Gupta regional powers and the early medieval period, and Nalanda's trajectory under royal patronage is treated as a case study in institutional Buddhism. Students are also directed to the following resources: R.C. Majumdar (ed.), The History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol. III: The Classical Age (Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan); A.L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India, chapters on post-Gupta India; Xuanzang (trans. Samuel Beal), Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World (Trübner & Co., 1884); the Archaeological Survey of India's published excavation reports on the Nalanda site; and the Nalanda University Act, 2010, with subsequent Parliamentary records on the institution's modern revival.