Jainism and Mahavira: Tirthankaras, Anekantavada, Ahimsa and the Two Major Jain Sects

Jainism Mahavira Anekantavada Ahimsa Tirthankaras form the conceptual core of one of the world's oldest living religions. Jainism teaches that reality is multifaceted, non-violence is supreme, and liberation is achieved by shedding karma through rigorous ethical discipline — principles revealed by 24 enlightened ford-makers called Tirthankaras, the last of whom was Vardhamana Mahavira.

Who Were the 24 Tirthankaras and What Role Did Mahavira Play?

Jainism, unlike Buddhism, does not claim a single historical founder. It holds that its teachings are eternal, periodically restored by a succession of 24 Tirthankaras — literally "ford-makers" or "crossing-makers," enlightened beings who have crossed the river of worldly existence and show others the path to liberation. Each cosmic cycle (kalpa) produces exactly 24 such teachers.

The first Tirthankara was Rishabhadeva (also called Adinath), revered as the originator of Jain civilisation in the present cosmic cycle. He is considered a legendary-prehistoric figure. The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha (c. 877–777 BCE according to Jain tradition), who is accepted as a historical personality by many scholars. Parshvanatha preceded Mahavira by approximately 250 years and established an early fourfold monastic community with a code of four vows.

The 24th and last Tirthankara, Vardhamana Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE), is the central historical figure of Jainism. Born in Vaishali (present-day Bihar) into the Kshatriya Licchhavis clan, his father was Siddhartha, the chief of the Naya (Nyatrika) clan, and his mother was Queen Trishala. He was a contemporary of the Buddha — they may have met, though this remains historically uncertain. At age 30 he renounced his household life in quest of liberation. He spent 12 years in intense asceticism — fasting for long stretches, observing silence, enduring physical hardship — before achieving Kevala Jnana (perfect omniscience) under an Ashoka tree on the banks of the Rijupalika River near Jrimbhikagrama. Henceforth he was called Jina ("conqueror" of inner passions) and Mahavira ("great hero"). He preached for 30 more years before attaining final liberation (moksha) at Pavapuri in Bihar.

Mahavira did not create Jainism from nothing. He reformed and systematised the existing Jain tradition, most significantly by adding celibacy (brahmacharya) as the fifth great vow to the four vows already prescribed by Parshvanatha.

What Are the Core Philosophical Teachings of Jainism?

Anekantavada: The Many-Sidedness of Truth

Anekantavada (non-one-sidedness) is Jainism's most distinctive philosophical contribution to Indian thought. It holds that reality is infinitely complex and no single viewpoint — however sophisticated — can capture the whole truth. This is classically illustrated by the parable of the blind men and the elephant: each blind man touches a different part and reaches a different, locally valid conclusion, yet none grasps the complete picture.

Two closely related doctrines refine Anekantavada:

• Syadvada (Conditional predication): Every statement about reality must be qualified with the term "syat" (in some respects / from some perspective). Jain logicians formalised this into a seven-fold predication called Saptabhangi — "in some respects it is," "in some respects it is not," "in some respects it both is and is not," "in some respects it is indescribable," and combinations of these seven positions.
• Nayavada (Doctrine of partial standpoints): Any viewpoint (naya) is valid as far as it goes, but it is always partial and context-dependent. Absolute, unqualified assertions are epistemologically impermissible.

Anekantavada provides Jainism with a built-in intellectual humility and tolerance — a philosophical basis for respecting diverse religious and philosophical traditions.

Ahimsa: The Supreme Ethical Principle

Ahimsa (non-violence) is the cornerstone of Jain ethics and the most comprehensive in the Indian philosophical tradition. It applies to thoughts, words, and deeds — not merely to physical actions. Jainism holds that all living beings, from the five-sensed humans down to single-sensed organisms such as earth, water, fire, air, and plant bodies, possess a soul (jiva) and the capacity to experience suffering.

Practical expressions of Ahimsa include:

• Strict vegetarianism is mandatory; many Jains also abstain from root vegetables (onions, potatoes, garlic, carrots) to avoid destroying the entire plant body.
• Jain monks sweep the path before them with a soft broom (rajoharana) to avoid inadvertently harming insects.
• Many monks cover their mouths with a cloth (muhapatti) to prevent accidental inhalation of micro-organisms.
• Jain philosophy of ahimsa profoundly shaped Mahatma Gandhi, who acknowledged his debt to Jain thinker Shrimad Raychandbhai (Rajchandra).

The Soul (Jiva), Karma, and Liberation

Jains believe every living being possesses an eternal soul (jiva) that is inherently omniscient and blissful in its pure state. However, the soul is encrusted by karma — understood in Jainism not as mere moral residue but as a subtle material substance that physically adheres to the soul as a consequence of its mental, verbal, and physical activities. Accumulated karma drives the cycle of rebirth.

Liberation (moksha) is achieved through two complementary processes: stopping the influx of new karma (samvara) and shedding existing karma (nirjara) through austerity, right knowledge, and right conduct. Liberated souls — the Siddhas — reside at the apex of the universe (Siddhashila) in a state of infinite knowledge, perception, bliss, and energy, freed permanently from the cycle of birth and death.

The Five Great Vows (Pancha Mahavrata)

Jain monks and nuns observe five absolute vows:

1. Ahimsa — non-violence in thought, word, and deed
2. Satya — truthfulness
3. Asteya — non-stealing
4. Brahmacharya — celibacy (added by Mahavira)
5. Aparigraha — non-attachment to possessions

Lay followers observe the lesser, modified versions of these vows, called anuvratas (small vows), adapted to the constraints of household life, supplemented by additional restraints called gunavratas and siksavratas.

How Do the Two Major Jain Sects — Digambara and Shvetambara — Differ?

After Mahavira's death, the Jain community remained broadly unified for roughly two centuries. A severe famine struck northern India around the period of Chandragupta Maurya (c. 322–298 BCE). The senior monk Bhadrabahu led a large contingent of Jains southward to Karnataka to survive the famine. The community that remained in the north, under Sthulabhadra, permitted monks to wear white clothing during the crisis. When Bhadrabahu's group returned, they refused to accept this relaxation of the rule of nudity. This dispute crystallised into the two major sects that persist to this day:

Dimension	Digambara ("Sky-Clad")	Shvetambara ("White-Clad")
Monastic dress	Senior male monks go completely naked; clothing is seen as attachment	Monks and nuns wear simple white robes
Women's liberation	Women cannot attain moksha in their current birth; must be reborn as men	Women can attain liberation; nuns form a recognised and significant part of the order
Sacred texts (Agamas)	Original Agamas believed to be lost; rely on later commentarial texts	Claim to preserve the canonical Agamas (45 texts), though their authenticity is debated
Mahavira's personal life	Mahavira was never married; renounced as an ascetic from the outset	Mahavira was married to Yashoda and had a daughter, Priyadarshana, before renouncing
Monks' food practice	Eat once a day, standing, using only the cupped palms as a bowl	Use a wooden alms bowl; may eat in a seated position
Image of Mahavira	Depicted without clothing and without ornaments	Depicted with a loincloth and sometimes ornaments in earlier images
Primary geographic base	Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh	Gujarat, Rajasthan

What Is the Historical Legacy and Contemporary Relevance of Jainism?

Royal Patronage and Monumental Architecture

Jainism attracted substantial royal patronage across Indian history. According to Jain tradition, Chandragupta Maurya renounced his throne at the end of his life, became a Jain monk, and died by the Jain practice of sallekhana (voluntary fasting unto death) at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. The Jains also received patronage from the Gangas of Karnataka, the Chalukyas, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.

Landmark monuments produced under Jain patronage include:

• Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan, 11th–13th century CE): Masterworks of white marble craftsmanship — the Vimala Vasahi (1031 CE) and Luna Vasahi (1230 CE) temples are considered among the finest examples of temple architecture anywhere in India.
• Gomateshvara (Bahubali) statue, Shravanabelagola, Karnataka: Standing 57 feet tall and carved from a single granite rock, this is one of the largest monolithic statues in the world. The Mahamastakabhisheka (head-anointing) ceremony, held approximately every 12 years, draws hundreds of thousands of pilgrims.
• Ranakpur Jain Temple, Rajasthan (15th century CE): Famous for its 1,444 intricately carved marble pillars, no two of which are identical.

Contemporary Jainism

Today, Jainism has approximately 4–5 million adherents in India, concentrated in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Karnataka. Despite constituting a small minority, Jains exercise disproportionate economic influence — particularly in trade, diamond processing, jewellery, and banking. This concentration in commerce rather than farming is itself a consequence of ahimsa: agricultural activity involves harming soil organisms, making commerce a more ahimsa-compatible livelihood.

Jain philosophy retains strong contemporary relevance. The doctrine of Anekantavada anticipates modern pluralism and epistemological humility. Jain environmental ethics — rooted in the belief that all living entities, including plants and microscopic organisms, possess souls — resonates with ecological movements. And the Jain influence on Gandhi's satyagraha gave this ancient tradition a direct and decisive impact on 20th-century world history.

Frequently Asked Questions

Who was the first Tirthankara in Jainism?

The first Tirthankara in Jainism was Rishabhadeva, also known as Adinath. He is regarded as the originator of Jain civilisation in the present cosmic cycle and is considered a legendary figure predating recorded history. The 24th and last Tirthankara was Vardhamana Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE), who is the primary historical figure of the Jain tradition.

What is Anekantavada in Jainism and why is it important?

Anekantavada is the Jain doctrine of the many-sidedness of truth. It holds that reality is infinitely complex and no single perspective can capture the whole truth. It is important because it provides a philosophical basis for intellectual tolerance and pluralism, and it gave rise to related doctrines like Syadvada (conditional predication) and Nayavada (partial standpoints). It is Jainism's most distinctive contribution to Indian philosophy.

What is the difference between Digambara and Shvetambara Jains?

Digambara ("sky-clad") Jain monks do not wear clothing, believe women cannot attain liberation in their current birth, and consider the original Agamas lost. Shvetambara ("white-clad") monks and nuns wear white robes, believe women can attain liberation, and preserve the canonical Agamic texts. The split is traced to a famine around Chandragupta Maurya's time, when Bhadrabahu led a group south while Sthulabhadra remained in the north.

How did Mahavira achieve enlightenment?

Mahavira left home at age 30 and spent 12 years in intense ascetic practice — prolonged fasting, silence, and endurance of physical hardship. He achieved Kevala Jnana (perfect omniscience) under an Ashoka tree on the banks of the Rijupalika River near Jrimbhikagrama. After this enlightenment he was called Jina (conqueror of passions) and Mahavira (great hero), and he preached for another 30 years before attaining final liberation (moksha) at Pavapuri.

How did Jain philosophy of Ahimsa influence Mahatma Gandhi?

Mahatma Gandhi was profoundly influenced by the Jain principle of Ahimsa (non-violence), particularly through his close relationship with Jain thinker Shrimad Raychandbhai (Rajchandra), whom he described as one of his most important spiritual guides. The Jain emphasis on non-violence in thought, word, and deed shaped Gandhi's concept of satyagraha and his broader philosophy of non-violent resistance, which became the defining strategy of India's independence movement.

Sources and Further Reading

According to IGNOU's BHIC-131 (History of India from the Earliest Times up to c. 300 CE), Jainism and the teachings of Mahavira are situated within the broader heterodox religious movements that emerged in the 6th century BCE alongside Buddhism, representing a significant challenge to Vedic orthodoxy. Padmanabh S. Jaini's The Jaina Path of Purification (University of California Press) remains the definitive academic treatment of Jain philosophy and soteriology. The Acaranga Sutra (Acarangasutta) — one of the oldest Jain canonical texts preserved by the Shvetambara tradition — offers primary-source accounts of Mahavira's ascetic practices. For historical contextualisation, A.L. Basham's The Wonder That Was India and Romila Thapar's A History of India (Vol. 1) are authoritative references. NCERT's Themes in Indian History Part I (Class 12, Chapter 4) provides the standard examination-level coverage of the Jain tradition.