Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 1919: Rowlatt Act, Dyer's Order, and Aftermath

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre was one of the most horrific acts of colonial violence in Indian history — on 13 April 1919, Brig. General Reginald Dyer ordered British Indian troops to fire without warning on a peaceful crowd gathered at an enclosed garden in Amritsar, Punjab, killing hundreds and transforming Indian public opinion irreversibly against British rule.

What Was the Background and Rowlatt Act?

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre must be understood in the context of post-WWI political tensions in India:

• Indian contribution to WWI: India contributed 1.5 million soldiers and enormous resources to Britain's war effort, expecting political reforms in return
• Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): The partial democratic reforms felt inadequate to nationalists who expected genuine self-government
• Rowlatt Act (18 March 1919): The "Black Act" — empowered authorities to arrest and detain suspects without trial, without producing them before a magistrate; an emergency wartime measure made permanent in peacetime; Indians called it "no appeal, no vakil, no daleel" (no appeal, no lawyer, no argument)
• Gandhi's call: Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal (strike) on 6 April 1919; it was massively observed; Gandhi himself was arrested while travelling to Punjab; unrest spread
• Martial Law in Punjab: Lt. Governor Michael O'Dwyer imposed martial law in Amritsar after two nationalist leaders (Dr. Satyapal and Dr. Kitchlew) were arrested; angry crowds burned buildings and killed 5 Europeans

What Happened on 13 April 1919?

Baisakhi (Sikh New Year harvest festival) was on 13 April 1919. Thousands gathered at Jallianwala Bagh — an enclosed garden surrounded by high walls with only a few narrow exits — to celebrate Baisakhi and to protest the arrest of Satyapal and Kitchlew. Many were unaware of the prohibition order on public meetings.

The Massacre — Sequence of Events

1. Brig. General Reginald Dyer arrived with ~90 Gurkha and Baluch soldiers and 2 armoured cars (which couldn't enter through the narrow passage)
2. Dyer gave no warning, no order to disperse — he ordered soldiers to fire immediately
3. Firing continued for approximately 10–15 minutes; troops fired ~1,650 rounds
4. Dyer ordered troops to fire at the densest parts of the crowd and at the exits where people tried to escape
5. Firing stopped only when ammunition began to run low
6. Dyer left without providing any medical assistance to the wounded

Casualties

• Official (Hunter Commission) figure: 379 killed, ~1,200 wounded
• Congress inquiry figure: ~1,000 killed, many more wounded
• Actual figure: Impossible to ascertain precisely; well estimated at 400–500+ dead
• The well in the garden contained dozens of bodies — people had jumped in to escape the firing

What Followed the Massacre?

Dyer's "Crawling Order"

The day after the massacre, Dyer issued the "Crawling Order" — any Indian passing through the lane where a British woman missionary had been attacked had to crawl on all fours. This humiliation became a symbol of the dehumanising nature of colonial rule.

Hunter Commission (1919–20)

The British government appointed the Hunter Commission (chaired by Lord Hunter) to investigate. Its report:

• Censured Dyer for excessive force and the crawling order
• Dyer was removed from his command and retired from the army
• However, the House of Lords passed a motion in Dyer's favour; the Morning Post raised £26,000 for him as a "sword of England"
• This British establishment defence of Dyer outraged Indian opinion even more than the massacre itself

Tagore Returns Knighthood

Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest, writing to the Viceroy: "The time has come when badges of honour make our shame glaring in their incongruous context of humiliation."

What Was the Impact on the Indian Freedom Struggle?

• Gandhi's disillusionment: Gandhi, who had supported the British war effort and urged Indians to enlist, was profoundly shaken; the massacre convinced him that British rule was fundamentally immoral and cooperation was impossible — leading directly to the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)
• Nehru's transformation: Jawaharlal Nehru, travelling incognito by train through Punjab during martial law, witnessed the terror regime; it permanently radicalized him against empire
• Udham Singh: A survivor of the massacre, Udham Singh tracked down Michael O'Dwyer (Lt. Governor who had approved Dyer's actions) to London and assassinated him on 13 March 1940 — one of the most audacious acts of Indian revolutionary nationalism
• Mass politicisation: The massacre and the British response created a massive wave of anti-colonial sentiment across all communities; the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920 drew directly on the outrage

Frequently Asked Questions

How many people were killed in the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

The official Hunter Commission figure was 379 dead and approximately 1,200 wounded. The Congress inquiry put the figure higher — closer to 1,000 dead. Modern historians generally estimate 400–500+ killed, with far more wounded. The exact figure is impossible to determine since many bodies were removed by families and the British administration had no interest in accurate counting. Many died from being trampled or from jumping into the well to escape the bullets.

Why did General Dyer open fire at Jallianwala Bagh?

Dyer later told the Hunter Commission that he fired to "produce a moral effect" — to teach a lesson that would be heard throughout Punjab and prevent future unrest. He said he would have used the armoured cars if they could have entered. Dyer admitted he gave no warning and did not order the crowd to disperse before firing. He stopped only when ammunition was nearly exhausted, not when the crowd dispersed.

What was the Rowlatt Act and why was it opposed?

The Rowlatt Act (March 1919) was legislation that allowed indefinite arrest and detention of persons suspected of terrorism without producing them before a magistrate — effectively removing the right to legal defence. Indians called it "no vakil, no daleel, no appeal" (no lawyer, no argument, no appeal). It was seen as making permanent the emergency powers that were supposedly temporary war measures, demonstrating that Britain had no intention of granting real freedoms despite Indian war contributions.

How did the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre affect Rabindranath Tagore?

Rabindranath Tagore, India's Nobel laureate poet, renounced his knighthood awarded by the British Crown in protest against the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. In his letter to the Viceroy Lord Chelmsford, he wrote that the "time has come when badges of honour make our shame glaring in their incongruous context of humiliation." Tagore's gesture was a powerful symbolic statement that gave the massacre international attention.

Who was Udham Singh and what did he do?

Udham Singh was a Punjabi revolutionary who claimed to have witnessed the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre as a young man. He dedicated decades to avenging the massacre. On 13 March 1940, at Caxton Hall, London, he shot and killed Michael O'Dwyer — the former Lt. Governor of Punjab who had approved Dyer's actions and suppressed post-massacre protests. Udham Singh was tried, convicted, and hanged in July 1940. He is honoured as Shaheed-e-Azam Udham Singh in India.

Sources and Further Reading

According to IGNOU's BHIC-134 (Modern India), the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre was a critical turning point in the Indian freedom struggle — it not only radicalised moderate opinion but also exposed the moral bankruptcy of British imperial liberalism that preached democracy abroad while practicing authoritarian violence in India, making mass non-cooperation the only logical response for Gandhi and the Congress.

• IGNOU BHIC-134: Modern India — Block on Punjab and Non-Cooperation
• Nigel Collett, The Butcher of Amritsar: Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer
• Kim Wagner, Amritsar 1919: An Empire of Fear and the Making of a Massacre
• Bipan Chandra, India's Struggle for Independence