The Mauryan Empire: Polity, Administration, Economy and Culture (322–185 BCE) — Part 3: 4. Economy

4. Economy

4.1 Agriculture

Agriculture was the backbone of the Mauryan economy and the primary source of state revenue. Megasthenes observed that a substantial proportion of the population was engaged in cultivation. Two crops were sown in a year, benefiting from both summer and winter rains, which meant famines were rare and people had ample food. Granaries were maintained and well stocked against contingencies. The Sohagaura copper plate inscription (4th–3rd century BCE, believed from Chandragupta's reign, written in Prakrit using the Brahmi script) records the establishment of a granary to store grain as a precaution against famines. Even during war in neighbouring territories, farmers were protected and agriculture was not disturbed.

The use of iron ploughs increased agricultural output substantially. The Arthashastra devotes considerable attention to the establishment and regulation of agricultural settlements and to measures for ensuring irrigation and land cultivation. The king was expected to show special favour to those who built embankments, road bridges, or otherwise benefited agriculture and rural communities.

4.2 Trade and Commerce

The Mauryan Empire presided over a vibrant commercial economy. Pataliputra's markets attracted merchants from distant lands: silk from China, spices and gems from the south, and fine textiles from various regions were traded there. Trade routes such as the Uttarapatha (northern route, connecting the northwest with the Ganga plains) and the Dakshinapatha (southern route) were crucial arteries of commerce. Thamralipti (on the Bengal coast) was an important eastern port.

Traders formed guilds (shrenis)—powerful associations of merchants, craftsmen, moneylenders, or agriculturists—that had their own elected heads and executive officers, internal rules, and considerable autonomy. Ancient texts held that 'Cultivators, traders, herdsmen, moneylenders, and artisans have authority to lay down rules for their respective classes.' The king generally refrained from interfering with guild operations when trade was prosperous. Guilds spread across large parts of India and proved to be enduring institutions.

Internal and external trade was facilitated by a well-developed coinage system. Punch-marked silver coins circulated as a medium of exchange, enabling complex commercial transactions across the empire.

4.3 Taxation

The Arthashastra specifies a detailed taxation system. Land revenue was the main source of income, with the state claiming a share of agricultural produce. Additional taxes were levied on trade, artisans, and forest produce. Customs duties on goods entering towns were another revenue source. Officials described by Megasthenes collected taxes and superintended occupational groups.

The treasury (kosha) was regarded as one of the seven elements of state and was carefully managed. A well-stocked treasury enabled the king to maintain the army, fund public works (roads, rest houses, hospitals, canals), and support cultural and religious projects. Ashoka's welfare measures—rest houses, wells, shade trees along roads, medical facilities for humans and animals—were funded through state resources and reflect an early conception of public expenditure for social welfare.

5. Society

Mauryan society was complex and stratified. The varna system provided a broad social framework, but occupational groups—farmers, artisans, merchants, soldiers, officials—were equally significant. Cities like Pataliputra were bustling centres of governance and commerce with palaces, public buildings, and well-planned streets. Houses were primarily made of wood and could be up to two storeys tall; streets had water-filled vessels stored at regular intervals in case of fire, and signage was displayed publicly.

Megasthenes identifies several broad social categories in Mauryan India: philosophers and priests, farmers (the largest class), herdsmen and hunters, artisans and tradesmen, soldiers, and overseers (officials). He notes that farmers were specially protected and respected even during wars. Slaves and servants existed in Mauryan society; Ashoka's edicts specifically call for treating them with kindness.

Women had social visibility: terracotta figurines of dancing girls with elaborate headdresses and jewellery survive from this period. Ashoka's patronage extended to women's organisations and the royal household through the Dhamma Mahamatta system. Artisans—blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, jewellers—lived in the cities and contributed to a rich material culture. Dress involved cotton garments: a lower garment reaching below the knee and an upper garment thrown over the shoulders, along with leather shoes with decorative designs.