Medieval Administrative Systems: Iqta, Mansab, Jagir and Revenue — Part 1: Introduction
Part 1: Introduction to medieval administrative systems; the Iqta system — origins, types (large/small/wajh), muqti duties, reforms under Balban, Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad Tughlaq, Firuz Tughlaq, and decline.
Medieval India — Part 3 of 5
Introduction: Administration as the Backbone of Medieval Empires
The longevity of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1707) depended not only on military power but on sophisticated administrative machinery. As Ziauddin Barani observed in his Fatawa-i Jahandari, "Kingship is the army and the army is the kingship" — a dictum that underlines how revenue collection, military organisation, and governance were inseparably interwoven in medieval India.
The Turkish conquerors who founded the Sultanate brought an institution ideally suited to their needs: the iqta — a revenue assignment that simultaneously solved the problem of paying officials without cash, controlling vast conquered territories, and maintaining armed forces. Three centuries later, the Mughals refined this principle into the mansabdari system and the jagir, creating what historians call a "patrimonial-bureaucratic" empire in which rank, revenue, and military obligation were fused into one administrative framework.
Understanding these institutions is indispensable for UPSC Prelims (factual recall), GS-I Mains (analytical essays), and the History Optional.
1. The Iqta System (Delhi Sultanate)
1.1 Origins and Meaning
The word iqta is Arabic in origin. The institution existed in the early Islamic world as a form of reward for services to the state and was used in Caliphate administration to finance operations and pay civil and military officers. The Turks imported it into India during the 13th-century conquests.
The iqta was a territorial revenue assignment; its holder was called the muqti or wali. In lieu of cash salaries, nobles (umara) were assigned territories from whose revenues they paid themselves, maintained troops, and sent the surplus (fawazil) to the central treasury (diwan-i wizarat). The grant of iqta did not imply permanent right to the land, nor was it hereditary — at least in theory. Iqtas were transferable, the holder being moved from one region to another every three or four years. This distinguishes the iqta from the European feudal fief, which was hereditary and non-transferable.
1.2 Types of Iqta
- Large iqtas (provincial): Carried full administrative, military, and revenue-collecting responsibilities. Provincial administration was headed by the muqti/wali.
- Small iqtas: Assigned to cavalry soldiers in lieu of salary. Under Iltutmish (1210–36), about three thousand soldiers of the royal cavalry (hashm-i qalb) received small iqtas in the Doab.
- Wajh assignments (under Firuz Tughlaq): Villages assigned to soldiers in lieu of salaries; holders called wajhdars. These tended to become permanent and hereditary — a regression from the classical iqta.
1.3 Iqtadars: Duties and Powers
The muqti/wali held multiple obligations:
- Revenue: Collection of the land tax (kharaj) and other taxes; surplus (fawazil) remitted to diwan-i wizarat.
- Military: Maintenance of a contingent of horsemen and foot soldiers, furnished to the Sultan on demand.
- Administrative: Law and order in the assigned territory.
- Accountability: Submission of detailed accounts of realisation and expenditure; stringent auditing.
According to Nizam-ul Mulk Tusi's Siyasatnama, the muqti's right extended only to collecting the "rightful amount of money or perquisite in a peaceful manner." The subjects' life, property, and family were immune from muqti's interference. Muqtis violating these norms were to be dismissed and punished. After every three or four years, "the amils and the muqtis should be transferred so that they may not be too strong."
1.4 Reform under Alauddin Khalji
The most significant reform came under Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316). The diwan-i wizarat prepared estimated revenue assessments (jama) for each iqta. Auditing became stringent, punishments severe, and transfers frequent. Enhancements (taufir) were regularly imposed. He also introduced a descriptive roll (huliya) for every soldier and branding (dagh) of horses to prevent fraud at musters.
Balban (1266–86) had earlier appointed a khwaja (accountant) with each muqti — the first attempt at central auditing of iqta income.
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–25) moderated the severity: enhancements were capped at 1/10–1/11 annually, and muqtis were allowed to retain 1/10–1/20 above their sanctioned salary.
Muhammad Tughlaq (1325–51) pushed intervention furthest: he separated fiscal and military authority within the same territory, appointing a wali for revenue collection and an amir for military command independently. The troops of iqta-holders were paid in cash by the state treasury — depriving commanders of control over their soldiers' pay. This caused significant political resentment.
1.5 Decline of the Iqta System
Firuz Tughlaq (1351–88) retreated from centralisation: he began granting iqtas to the sons and heirs of iqta-holders, restoring the hereditary character the system was designed to prevent. Under the Lodis (1451–1526), the term iqta disappeared; areas were simply called sarkars and parganas. Sub-assignments became common under Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517), where main assignees sub-assigned portions of their territories to subordinates.