Mughal Empire: Babur, Humayun, and the Foundations of Mughal Rule
Mughal Empire Babur refers to the founding of the Mughal dynasty by Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, a Central Asian prince of Timurid and Mongol descent who defeated the Delhi Sultanate at the First Battle...
Mughal Empire Babur refers to the founding of the Mughal dynasty by Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, a Central Asian prince of Timurid and Mongol descent who defeated the Delhi Sultanate at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 — establishing a dynasty that would rule the Indian subcontinent for over three centuries and create one of the world's greatest empires.
Who Was Babur and What Were His Origins?
Babur (1483–1530) was a prince of Fergana (in modern Uzbekistan) who claimed descent from Timur (Tamerlane) on his father's side and Genghis Khan on his mother's side — making him the heir to both the Timurid cultural legacy (Persian literature, architecture, and refinement) and the Mongol military tradition. He lost Samarkand and Fergana to the Uzbek Shaybani Khan, then conquered Kabul (1504) as his base, and turned his attention to India.
Babur's Invasions of India
- Babur made five raids into India before his decisive campaign; he was invited by several Punjab nobles and Daulat Khan Lodi (governor of Punjab) who opposed Ibrahim Lodi's tyranny
- Rana Sanga of Mewar also encouraged Babur, expecting to use him against the Lodhis and then recover Delhi for the Rajputs
What Happened at the First Battle of Panipat (1526)?
The First Battle of Panipat on 21 April 1526 between Babur's Central Asian force and Ibrahim Lodi's Delhi Sultanate army is one of India's decisive battles:
| Factor | Babur | Ibrahim Lodi |
|---|---|---|
| Forces | ~12,000 cavalry | ~100,000 troops + war elephants |
| Key advantage | Gunpowder artillery; superior tactics | Numerical superiority but poor coordination |
| Tactic | Tulughma (flanking envelopment) + artillery in centre | Conventional frontal assault |
| Outcome | Decisive victory; Ibrahim Lodi killed | Delhi Sultanate ended |
Babur's use of artillery (under Ottoman gunners Ustad Ali Quli and Mustafa) was decisive — war elephants, terrified by cannon fire, turned and crushed their own soldiers. The Tulughma tactic, a Mongol manoeuvre using flanking horsemen to encircle the enemy, trapped Ibrahim's large army.
Battle of Khanwa (1527) — Rana Sanga Defeated
Rana Sanga of Mewar, who had expected Babur to retreat after Delhi, now mobilised a vast Rajput confederacy to challenge him. Babur declared jihad to motivate his troops (who were homesick and wanted to return to Kabul with the Delhi plunder). At Khanwa, Babur again used artillery and Tulughma tactics to defeat the far larger Rajput force. This battle secured Mughal authority over Rajputana.
Battle of Ghaghra (1529)
Babur defeated the combined Afghan-Bengal Sultanate forces at Ghaghra, securing Bengal and completing his control of northern India. He died in 1530 at Agra, aged 47, leaving an empire stretching from Kabul to Bengal — but without a firm administrative foundation.
What Was Babur's Legacy and the Baburnama?
- Baburnama: Babur's autobiography in Chagatai Turkish — considered one of the world's great memoirs; remarkable for its candour, literary beauty, and natural history observations; first autobiography in Islamic literature
- Cultural refinement: Babur brought Persian literary culture and Timurid aesthetic sensibilities to India; laid the foundations for Mughal art and architecture
- Gardens: Introduced the Persian Char Bagh (four-part garden) style to India; gardens at Agra, Dholpur, and Kabul
- Military innovation: Introduced field artillery to Indian warfare — permanently changing the nature of battle
Who Was Humayun and Why Did He Lose the Empire?
Nasir-ud-din Humayun (r. 1530–1540, 1555–1556) was Babur's eldest son — a complex figure of contradictions: an able commander when focused, but prone to procrastination and opium use. He divided the empire unwisely among his brothers (Kamran, Askari, Hindal) at his accession.
Humayun's Defeats and Exile
- Sher Shah Suri: An Afghan chieftain who rose from Babur's service to control Bihar and Bengal; decisively defeated Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kanauj/Bilgram (1540)
- Exile (1540–1555): Humayun fled through Sindh, Rajputana, and finally to Persia; the Safavid Shah Tahmasp I gave him military assistance (and required him to adopt Shia Islam temporarily)
- Sher Shah Suri's administration: During Humayun's exile, Sher Shah created one of medieval India's most efficient administrations — the Grand Trunk Road, the rupee coin, the postal system, and the Sur administrative system that Akbar later adopted
Humayun's Reconquest (1555–56)
After Sher Shah's death (1545) and the fragmentation of the Sur empire, Humayun reconquered Delhi in July 1555. He died just six months later — slipping on the stairs of his library (Sher Mandal) in Delhi, January 1556 — leaving the empire to his 13-year-old son Akbar, in the care of the brilliant regent Bairam Khan.
Frequently Asked Questions
What was the First Battle of Panipat and why was it decisive?
The First Battle of Panipat (21 April 1526) was fought between Babur's Timurid-Mughal army and Sultan Ibrahim Lodi of the Delhi Sultanate. Babur's decisive advantages were gunpowder artillery (which terrified Ibrahim's war elephants) and the Tulughma flanking tactic. Ibrahim Lodi was killed; the Delhi Sultanate ended; and Babur established the Mughal Empire. It was decisive because it introduced field artillery to Indian warfare and replaced the Afghan Sultanate with a new Central Asian dynasty.
How did Babur defeat Rana Sanga at Khanwa?
At the Battle of Khanwa (1527), Babur faced a large Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga of Mewar. Babur declared jihad to motivate homesick troops; used the same artillery + Tulughma combination that had defeated Ibrahim Lodi; and routed the numerically superior Rajput force. This battle secured Mughal authority over Rajputana and demonstrated that Babur's military innovations gave consistent advantages over traditional Indian cavalry armies.
Why did Humayun lose the empire to Sher Shah Suri?
Humayun lost the empire to Sher Shah due to multiple factors: poor strategic decisions (he besieged Chunar for months while Sher Shah built power in Bengal); fraternal conflicts (brothers Kamran and Hindal withheld support or actively undermined him); procrastination and overconfidence; and Sher Shah's own military brilliance. At Chausa (1539), Humayun was caught off-guard and barely escaped by swimming the Ganges; at Kanauj (1540), Sher Shah's disciplined Afghan army destroyed the Mughal force.
What was the Baburnama?
The Baburnama (Tuzuk-i-Baburi) is Babur's autobiography written in Chagatai Turkish — considered one of the world's great memoirs and the first autobiography in Islamic literature. It covers his life from age 11, his adventures in Central Asia, his grief over losing Samarkand and Fergana, and his campaigns in India. Remarkable for its literary quality, personal candour, and detailed observations on nature (plants, animals), it was translated into Persian by Akbar's order and later into English by Annette Beveridge.
What was Sher Shah Suri's administrative contribution?
During Humayun's exile (1540–1545), Sher Shah created one of medieval India's most efficient administrative systems: the Grand Trunk Road from Bengal to the northwest frontier (with rest houses/sarais at intervals); the introduction of the silver rupee coin (still India's currency name); a systematic postal (dak) system using horses and runners; land revenue measurement (bigha system); and a unified administrative framework. Akbar later built on Sher Shah's administrative foundations rather than Babur's.
Sources and Further Reading
According to IGNOU's BHIC-133 (Medieval India), the early Mughal period — from Babur's First Battle of Panipat to Humayun's reconquest — established the military and cultural foundations of the Mughal Empire, while Sher Shah's interregnum paradoxically strengthened the administrative framework that Akbar would inherit and transform into one of history's greatest bureaucratic achievements.
- IGNOU BHIC-133: Medieval India — Blocks on Early Mughal Period
- Babur, Baburnama (trans. Annette Beveridge)
- Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals
- Iqtidar Alam Khan, Gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India