The Mughal Empire: Political History, Consolidation and Decline — Part 4: Akbar — Administration and Rajput Policy

3.3 Administrative Reforms

Mansabdari System

Akbar established a hierarchical rank system in which every officer (mansabdar) held a numerical rank that determined: (i) his status in the official hierarchy; (ii) his personal salary (zat rank); and (iii) the number of cavalry contingents (sawar rank) he was obliged to maintain. Abul Fazl states that Akbar established 66 grades of mansabdars ranging from commanders of 10 to 10,000 horsemen, although only 33 grades are mentioned. The dual zat-sawar rank system most probably crystallised in 1595–96.

The three classes of mansabdars classified in 1595–96 were: (a) those whose sawar rank equalled the zat; (b) those with sawar rank half or more than half of the zat; and (c) those whose sawar rank was less than half of the zat. Mansabdars were verified through dagh (branding of horses) and chehra (descriptive roll of troops). Data from the period reveals that 80 per cent of total revenue resources of the empire were appropriated by 1,571 mansabdars — indicating extreme concentration of wealth in the noble class.

The Mir Bakhshi was the head of the military department who presented candidates to the Emperor, supervised dagh-chehra inspection, checked muster-rolls, and placed all matters pertaining to the military department before the Emperor. His darbar duties considerably added to his prestige and influence.

Jagir System

Most mansabdars were paid through jagirs — assignments of land revenue rather than cash. The jagir was not heritable and was transferable at the emperor's will, preventing any noble from building a permanent territorial base. The gap between assessed (jama) and actual (hasil) revenue meant mansabdars frequently received month-scale salaries: shashmaha (six-monthly, when actual yield was half the estimate) or sihmaha (three-monthly, when actual yield was one-quarter).

Todar Mal's Revenue Settlement (Zabt System, c. 1580)

Raja Todar Mal, Akbar's finance minister, refined the revenue system inherited from Sher Shah. Key features:

• Land was measured using the standardised ilahi gaz
• Average yield of different crops over the previous ten years (dahsala or decennial settlement) formed the basis of assessment
• Revenue was calculated at approximately one-third of average produce
• Four methods of assessment were in use: zabt (measurement-based), batai (crop-sharing), nasaq (estimate), and kankut (appraisal of standing crop)

The Ain-i Akbari documents that the Mughal provinces of Agra produced 39 varieties of crops and Delhi produced 43 over the two seasonal cycles (kharif and rabi). The state actively encouraged cultivation of jins-i kamil (cash crops such as cotton and sugarcane) that brought higher revenue.

Central and Provincial Administration

The Diwan-i Kul (chief finance minister) was made responsible for revenue and finances; his seal and signatures were necessary for the validation of all official papers involving revenue. Akbar stripped the financial powers from the wakil in the 8th regnal year (1564–65), entrusting them to the diwan-i kul — a critical checks-and-balances measure.

In 1580, Akbar divided the empire into 12 subas (provinces), later expanded to 15 with the addition of Berar, Khandesh, and Ahmadnagar. Each suba was divided into sarkars and parganas. The subadar (governor) and the provincial diwan were separate officers both appointed by and accountable to the emperor — a deliberate separation designed to prevent provincial over-reach.

3.4 Akbar's Rajput Policy

Akbar recognised that sustainable empire in India required the cooperation, not merely the submission, of the Rajput chiefs. His approach combined diplomacy, matrimonial alliance, and military coercion:

• Marriage alliances: Akbar married Harka Bai (later Mariam-uz-Zamani), daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber, in 1562. Subsequent Mughal emperors also contracted matrimonial alliances with Rajput houses.
• Enrollment in the mansabdari system: Rajput chiefs were enrolled as high-ranking mansabdars. Raja Man Singh of Amber reached the rank of 7,000 zat — the highest granted to a non-prince during Akbar's reign. The rulers of autonomous principalities formed a group that received preferential treatment in recruitment and promotions.
• Retention of faith and autonomy: Rajput chiefs serving the Mughals retained their religion and autonomous governance within their territories.
• Exception — Mewar: The Sisodiya Rajputs of Mewar under Rana Pratap refused subordination. At the Battle of Haldighati (1576), Mughal forces under Man Singh fought Rana Pratap to an inconclusive result; Mewar's guerrilla resistance continued until Rana Pratap died undefeated in 1597.

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