The Mughal Empire: Political History, Consolidation and Decline — Part 5: Jahangir and Shah Jahan

4. Jahangir (1605–1627)

Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir succeeded Akbar after a rebellion by Prince Salim (Jahangir himself) had strained his father's last years. He was a man of contradictions: a severe judge who instituted the famous Chain of Justice at Agra Fort for direct petitioning, yet possessed the eye of a naturalist and patron of extraordinary artistic refinement.

His memoirs, the Tuzuk-i Jahangiri, written initially in his own hand — deriving inspiration from his great-grandfather Babur — provide a vivid account of his twelve orders (dastur-ul amal) including the establishment of free hospitals in all major cities, appointment of physicians, and a prohibition on slaughter of animals on certain days. The Tuzuk also throws light on Jahangir's keen interest in botany and zoology and reflects his personality as an extremely liberal Muslim and rationalist thinker.

Key events:

• Khusrau's rebellion (1606): His eldest son Khusrau rebelled and was captured; Guru Arjan Dev of the Sikhs, accused of supporting Khusrau, was executed — the first Mughal-Sikh conflict.
• Mewar peace (1615): Rana Amar Singh of Mewar submitted to Jahangir, ending the Sisodiya resistance begun under Rana Sanga — a major diplomatic achievement.
• Do aspa sih aspa innovation: Jahangir introduced this modification of the sawar rank; Mahabat Khan was the first to receive it in the 10th year of Jahangir's reign. It allowed the emperor to reward loyal nobles with doubled cavalry obligation without increasing the zat rank, thus avoiding an upward shift in the salary hierarchy and preventing jealousy among peers.
• Nur Jahan's influence: The Empress Nur Jahan (Mehr-un-Nissa), Jahangir's twentieth wife, exercised extraordinary political power in the later years of the reign — a unique instance of female authority within the imperial system.
• Sir Thomas Roe's embassy (1615–18): The English ambassador negotiated trade concessions for the East India Company, a harbinger of European commercial penetration.
• Malik Amber and the Deccan: The Abyssinian regent of Ahmadnagar proved a resourceful adversary; the Deccan remained a persistent military problem throughout Jahangir's reign.
• Mahabat Khan's coup (1626): A brief palace coup in which Mahabat Khan held Jahangir captive; Nur Jahan engineered the emperor's release.

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5. Shah Jahan (1628–1658): The Pinnacle of Mughal Culture

Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan came to power after a succession war in which his brothers Khusrau (already blinded earlier), Shahryar, and Dawar Bakhsh were eliminated. His reign (1628–1658) represented the aesthetic zenith of Mughal civilisation.

Administrative developments:

• The chakla — a cluster of several parganas — emerged as a new administrative sub-unit during Shah Jahan's reign, streamlining revenue management between the sarkar and pargana levels.
• The post of chief qazi and sadr-us sudur remained combined (they would be separated only under Aurangzeb).
• Public works: The shahnahr canal in the Punjab was constructed, repairing and expanding old irrigation infrastructure to support agricultural revenue.

Military events:

• Deccan campaigns: Shah Jahan forced the submission of Ahmadnagar (1632–36) and brought Bijapur and Golconda to tributary status. Aurangzeb as viceroy of the Deccan demonstrated military and administrative competence.
• Balkh-Badakhshan campaign (1646–47): A costly failure — Mughal armies attempted to control Central Asia but were unable to hold Balkh against Uzbek pressure, draining treasury and manpower.
• Loss of Qandahar (1649): The Safavids retook Qandahar; three subsequent attempts (1652–53) to recapture it failed, reducing Mughal prestige in Central Asia.

Cultural legacy:

• The Taj Mahal (completed c. 1653), built as a mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal, is the empire's supreme architectural achievement.
• The Red Fort and Jama Masjid at Shahjahanabad (present-day Old Delhi); the Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus).
• Abdul Hamid Lahori's Padshahnama (covering the first twenty years of Shah Jahan's reign) and Muhammad Salih Kamboh's Amal-i Salih are the key primary sources for this reign.

War of Succession (1657–58): Shah Jahan fell gravely ill in 1657; all four sons — Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb, and Murad Bakhsh — took to the field. Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh at the Battle of Samugarh (May 1658), had Dara executed in 1659, confined Shah Jahan in the Agra Fort, and put Murad to death. Shah Jahan died in captivity in 1666.

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