6. Aurangzeb (1658–1707): Expansion and Contradictions

Muhy-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb ruled for nearly fifty years — the longest reign of any Mughal emperor. He expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent while simultaneously triggering the forces that would destroy it.

6.1 Religious Policy and the Jizya

Aurangzeb departed decisively from Akbar's sulh-i-kul policy. His measures included:

Re-imposition of jizya (1679): Abolished by Akbar in 1564, the poll tax on non-Muslims was reimposed. This decision alienated Hindu merchants, zamindars, and Rajput nobles. The contemporary chronicler Bhimsen noted critically that barely a fraction of the jizya revenue reached the treasury.
Destruction of temples: Orders were issued for the demolition of prominent Hindu and Jain temples; the Kashi Vishwanath temple (Varanasi) and the Keshavdev temple (Mathura) were among the most prominent demolished.
Separation of qazi and sadr posts: Under Aurangzeb, the post of the chief qazi (qazi-ul quzzat) and the sadr-us sudur were separated, leading to a sharp curtailment of the sadr's power.
Hisba (censorship of public morals): The muhtasib was tasked with enforcing Islamic morality in public life, including examining weights and measures, enforcing fair prices, and suppressing drinking and gambling.
Discontinuation of official history: After the completion of the Alamgirnama (covering the first ten years), Aurangzeb discontinued the project of writing an official history of his reign — a significant departure from the Mughal tradition of elaborate court chronicles.

6.2 Deccan Campaign and Military Overextension

Aurangzeb moved his capital to the Deccan in 1681 and never returned to the north. For 26 years he prosecuted wars against the Deccan Sultanates and the Marathas:

Bijapur (besieged and annexed, 1686)
Golconda (besieged and annexed, 1687)

These annexations gave the Mughals nominal control over the Deccan but at enormous cost: hundreds of thousands of troops, decades of treasury expenditure, and the emperor's aging energies were consumed. The Deccan campaign drew Mughal military resources away from the north, enabling rebellions in Punjab (Sikh-led resistance), Rajputana (Durgadas Rathore), the Jat uprising, and Satnami revolts. Bhimsen's Nuskha-i Dilkusha, a firsthand account of Aurangzeb's Deccan years, provides vivid detail on Aurangabad's prosperity, the rise of the Marathas, Maratha raids, and analyses that the increase in the strength of the nobility led to the jagirdari crisis during Aurangzeb's reign.

6.3 Rise of the Marathas

Shivaji Bhonsle (1630–1680) founded the Maratha kingdom in the Western Deccan, exploiting guerrilla warfare (ganimi kava) to challenge both the Bijapur Sultanate and the Mughal Empire:

Sack of Surat (1664 and 1670): Shivaji looted the empire's richest port, demonstrating Mughal inability to protect core economic assets.
Coronation (1674): Shivaji had himself crowned Chhatrapati (Lord of the Umbrella) at Raigad — a claim to Hindu sovereign kingship that provided ideological legitimacy to Maratha power.
Agra episode (1666): Shivaji attended Aurangzeb's court under safe conduct, felt dishonoured, and dramatically escaped captivity.

After Shivaji's death (1680), the Marathas fractured briefly but regrouped. Aurangzeb spent over two decades hunting Maratha chiefs; despite capturing and executing Sambhaji (Shivaji's son) in 1689, the Maratha Confederacy survived and expanded. By 1700, the Marathas controlled large parts of the western Deccan and were extracting chauth (one-quarter of revenue) and sardeshmukhi (ten per cent extra) from territories they raided but did not administer.

7. Key Battles of the Mughal Period

Battle	Year	Parties	Outcome
First Battle of Panipat	1526	Babur vs. Ibrahim Lodi	Mughal victory; Delhi Sultanate ended
Battle of Khanwa	1527	Babur vs. Rana Sanga	Mughal victory; Rajput military power checked
Battle of Chanderi	1528	Babur vs. Medini Rai	Mughal victory; Malwa consolidated
Battle of Ghaghra	1529	Babur vs. Afghans of Bengal	Mughal victory; Afghan eastern resistance broken
Battle of Chausa	1539	Humayun vs. Sher Shah Suri	Sher Shah victory; Humayun retreats
Battle of Kanauj (Bilgram)	1540	Humayun vs. Sher Shah Suri	Sher Shah victory; Humayun exiled
Second Battle of Panipat	1556	Akbar (Bairam Khan) vs. Hemu	Mughal victory; Hemu defeated and killed
Battle of Tukaroi	1575	Akbar vs. Daud Khan Karrani	Mughal victory; Bengal campaign launched
Battle of Haldighati	1576	Akbar (Man Singh) vs. Rana Pratap	Inconclusive; Rana Pratap continued resistance
Battle of Samugarh	1658	Aurangzeb vs. Dara Shikoh	Aurangzeb victory; succession war decided

The Mughal Empire: Political History, Consolidation and Decline — Part 6: Aurangzeb and Key Battles