Nationalism in Europe (19th Century): Unification of Italy and Germany
19th-century European nationalism produced two of history's most dramatic political achievements — the unification of Italy (1861) and Germany (1871) — through a combination of liberal idealism, revolutionary movements and cold power politics. Both new nations' aggressive territorial ambitions later contributed to World War I.
1. The Idea of Nationalism
Nationalism — the idea that people sharing a common language, culture, history or territory constitute a "nation" and should govern themselves as a sovereign state — emerged as a powerful political force in Europe after the French Revolution.
The French Revolution's ideas of popular sovereignty and self-determination planted nationalism's seeds. Napoleon's conquests paradoxically spread both French revolutionary ideas and anti-French national resistance (which itself took nationalist form in Germany, Spain and elsewhere).
Concert of Europe (1815): After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna (1815) redrew the map of Europe on the principle of legitimacy (restoring old dynasties) and balance of power — deliberately suppressing nationalist aspirations. Austria, Prussia, Russia and Britain agreed to maintain this order. Metternich's Austria was the chief enforcer of conservatism.
1848 Revolutions ("Springtime of Nations"): Simultaneous liberal-nationalist uprisings across Europe — Paris, Vienna, Budapest, Berlin, Rome, Milan. Almost all were suppressed by 1849. But 1848 demonstrated the power of the nationalist idea even in failure.
2. Unification of Italy (Risorgimento)
Context: The Italian peninsula in 1815 was divided into ~8 states: the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont (northwest), the Papal States (centre), the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (south), and Austrian-controlled Lombardy and Venetia (northeast).
Key figures:
| Figure | Role |
|---|---|
| Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–72) | Idealist; founded Young Italy movement (1831); believed in nationalist revolution through popular uprising; inspired generation of nationalists |
| Count Camillo di Cavour (1810–61) | Pragmatic statesman; Prime Minister of Piedmont; used diplomacy and alliances to create conditions for unification |
| Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–82) | Military hero; led Expedition of the Thousand (1860); conquered Kingdom of Two Sicilies |
Unification process:
- Cavour modernised Piedmont (railways, industry, liberal reforms) to make it the natural leader of Italian unification.
- Cavour allied with France (Napoleon III); in War with Austria (1859), Piedmont gained Lombardy.
- Central Italian states (Tuscany, Modena, Parma) voted to join Piedmont.
- Garibaldi's Thousand (1860): Red-shirted volunteers landed in Sicily; swept through southern Italy; handed it to King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont.
- Kingdom of Italy proclaimed (1861) under Victor Emmanuel II; capital at Turin (later Florence, then Rome).
- Venice acquired (1866, after Prussia's war with Austria); Rome acquired (1870, after France's defeat by Prussia allowed withdrawal of French troops protecting the Pope).
3. Unification of Germany (Kleindeutschland)
Context: The German states in 1815 numbered ~39, loosely federated in the German Confederation under Austrian presidency. Two great powers competed for leadership of Germany: Austria (multi-ethnic, conservative) and Prussia (militarised, economically growing, ethnically German).
Key figure: Otto von Bismarck (1815–98) — appointed Prussian Chancellor 1862 by King Wilhelm I.
Bismarck's philosophy: Realpolitik — politics based on practical power, not ideology. His famous dictum: "The great questions of the time are not resolved by speeches and majority decisions...but by iron and blood."
Three wars of unification:
| War | Year | Result |
|---|---|---|
| Danish War | 1864 | Prussia and Austria together defeated Denmark; gained Schleswig-Holstein |
| Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks' War) | 1866 | Prussia crushed Austria at Battle of Königgrätz; Austria expelled from German affairs; North German Confederation formed under Prussia |
| Franco-Prussian War | 1870–71 | Prussia defeated France at Battle of Sedan (Napoleon III captured); southern German states joined Prussia |
German Empire (Reich) proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles (18 January 1871): King Wilhelm I of Prussia became Kaiser Wilhelm I; Bismarck became Chancellor of the unified German Empire.
4. Consequences of German and Italian Unification
For Europe:
- The appearance of a unified, powerful Germany disrupted the balance of power.
- German industrial and military growth rapidly outpaced that of France and Britain.
- Bismarck managed the resulting tensions through a complex alliance system (1871–90); after his dismissal, Kaiser Wilhelm II's reckless diplomacy helped trigger WWI.
Nationalism becomes aggressive:
- Germany's Pan-Germanism and Italy's irredentism (claiming territories with Italian populations under Austria) both contributed to WWI tensions.
- Both Italy and Germany felt "cheated" in the post-WWI settlement — Italy's "mutilated victory" and Germany's humiliation at Versailles fed the fascist movements.
5. Connection to Indian Nationalism
Indian nationalists studied European nationalism closely:
- Bipin Chandra Pal and Bal Gangadhar Tilak drew explicitly on the Italian example — they compared themselves to Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi.
- Mazzini's writings (Duties of Man) were widely read and circulated in India.
- Lala Lajpat Rai wrote extensively on the Italian and German unification as models for India.
- The idea that India was a "nation" with a shared civilisational identity drew on Romantic-nationalist concepts from Europe.
6. UPSC Relevance
Prelims: Congress of Vienna = 1815; 1848 Revolutions = "Springtime of Nations"; Young Italy = Mazzini (1831); Kingdom of Italy = 1861; German Empire = 18 January 1871; Bismarck's "iron and blood" speech; Battle of Königgrätz = 1866; Battle of Sedan = 1870.
Mains GS1: "Nationalism in 19th-century Europe was simultaneously a liberating and a dangerous force." Discuss. | Compare Bismarck's Realpolitik with Cavour's approach to unification. | How did European nationalism influence the Indian national movement?
Frequently Asked Questions
What drove 19th-century nationalism in Europe?
Ideas from the French Revolution, liberalism, romanticism and shared language and culture fuelled movements for national unification and independence.
How was Italy unified?
Through the efforts of Mazzini (ideology), Garibaldi (military campaigns) and Cavour (diplomacy), Italy was unified by 1871 under the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont.
How was Germany unified?
Otto von Bismarck unified Germany by 1871 through 'blood and iron' — a series of wars and skilful diplomacy under Prussian leadership.
What was Bismarck's Realpolitik?
Realpolitik was Bismarck's pragmatic, power-based approach to politics, prioritising practical goals over ideology to achieve German unification.
Sources and Further Reading
According to standard UPSC references and NCERT texts, European nationalism is studied through the writings of its leaders and standard world histories.
- NCERT, India and the Contemporary World.
- Standard histories of European nationalism.