Sources of Ancient Indian History: Archaeological, Literary and Foreign Accounts — Part 3: 2. Literary Sources

1.4 Monuments and Architecture

Physical remains—temples, caves, pillars, and structural complexes—constitute a fourth major category of archaeological evidence.

• Cave architecture: Large caves excavated in western Indian hills served as chaityas (prayer halls) and viharas (monasteries). The Ajanta and Ellora caves are the most celebrated examples.
• Rock-cut temples: The Kailash Temple at Ellora (carved out of a single rock) and the Pancha-Rathas at Mamallapuram showcase architectural ambition and religious patronage.
• Pillared halls: The Mauryan ruins of the pillared hall at Kumrahar (Pataliputra) testify to the grandeur of Mauryan statecraft.
• Buddhist stupas and sculptures: Stupa railings at Bharhut, Sanchi, Nagarjunakonda, and Amaravati carry Jataka reliefs that illuminate popular Buddhism.
• Excavated township remains: Taxila, Kaushambi, Kashi (Rajghat), Ayodhya, and Vaishali have been excavated, revealing settlement continuity from the Painted Grey Ware and Northern Black Polished Ware periods.

Monuments throw light on architectural styles, regional variations, artistic traditions, and the economic capacity of ruling classes. Their inscriptions help date the sculptural programs.

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2. Literary Sources

2.1 Religious Literature (Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, Buddhist Pali Texts, Jain Agamas)

Vedic Literature

The earliest known literature from the Indian subcontinent, the Vedic corpus, is oral literature par excellence. The word veda derives from the Sanskrit root vid meaning 'to know'. The Vedas are traditionally regarded as Shruti (revealed texts) and were transmitted orally with extreme care through elaborate pathas (recitation modes) such as Ghana and Jata, which prevented interpolation.

The four Vedic Samhitas:

1. Rigveda Samhita — 1028 hymns (suktas) in 10 books (mandalas); Books II–VII are the oldest (c. 1500–1000 BCE); yield data on pastoral economy, clan-chief (raja), social terminology (vish, bhaga, bali).
2. Samaveda Samhita — Musical version; roots of Indian classical music; borrows most verses from Rigveda.
3. Yajurveda Samhita — Sacrificial formulas; lists important crops (wheat, rice, barley, sesame, millets, sorghum, kidney-beans); contains primary Upanishads (Brihadaranyaka, Katha, Isha, Maitri, Taittiriya, Shvetashvatara).
4. Atharvaveda Samhita — 20 books; incantations, healing spells, rites of passage (upanayana, marriage, funeral), royal rituals; valuable for social and cultural history.

The six Vedangas (limbs of the Vedas)—Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda (metrics), Jyotish (astronomy)—were evolved for proper understanding of the Vedas.

Later Vedic Literature (c. 1000–500 BCE): Brahmanas (theological commentaries on sacrifice), Aranyakas (forest texts on ritual interpretation), and Upanishads (philosophical dialogues). Famous national mottos and slogans derive from Upanishads: Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam from the Maha Upanishad; Atithi Devo Bhava from the Taittiriya Upanishad; Satyamev Jayate from the Mundaka Upanishad.

Sutra Literature (c. 600–300 BCE): Shrautasutras (great sacrifices), Grihyasutras (daily domestic ceremonies), and Dharmasutras (the oldest law books). Later Smriti texts—Manusmriti, Narada Smriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti (c. 200 BCE–900 CE)—prescribe duties for varnas, kings, and officials, and rules for marriage, property, and punishments.

Puranas

The 18 Mahapuranas and numerous Upapuranas are dated to the Gupta and post-Gupta period. Their five-fold subject matter (pancha lakshana): sarga (creation), pratisarga (re-creation), manvantara (recurring time periods), vamsha (genealogies), and vamshanucharita (dynastic histories). The Puranas mention the Haryankas, Shishunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas, Kanvas, and Andhras. Dynastic lists end with the Guptas, suggesting compilation c. 4th–6th centuries CE. They are crucial for reconstructing historical geography and the development of the three great Hindu cults: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism.

Buddhist Pali Texts

The Pali Tripitakas ("Three Baskets") tell us about India at the time of the Buddha and the 16 Mahajanapadas:

• Sutta Pitaka — Discourses of the Buddha; contains five Nikayas; the Khuddaka Nikaya includes Theragatha, Therigatha, and Jatakas (over 550 stories about the Buddha's former births; transformed into sculptural reliefs at Bharhut, Sanchi, Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati).
• Vinaya Pitaka — 227 rules for monks and nuns; written in 386 BCE; covers founding of each rule and early Buddhist history.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka — Buddhist philosophy according to Theravada school.

Therigatha ("Verses of the Elder Nuns") is the first surviving Indian poetry attributed exclusively to women, making it important for both religious and gender history.

Non-canonical Buddhist texts: Milindapanha (dialogue between Indo-Greek king Menander and monk Nagasena, c. 1st century BCE); Sinhalese chronicles Mahavamsha and Dipavamsha (history of Buddhism from the time of the Buddha's Enlightenment).

Jain Agamas

Jain literature is in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit (Shvetambara) and Jain Shauraseni (Digambara). Mahavira's teachings were first compiled in 14 Purvas. In c. 4th century BCE, Sthulabhadra convened a council at Pataliputra and reconstructed the canon in 12 Angas. A council at Valabhi (c. 5th century CE) formalized them in written form. Jain texts are valuable for the history of different regions, Jain doctrine, and rival religious schools.