The Vedic Age: Society, Economy, Religion and Transition (c. 1500–600 BCE) — Part 2: 2. Early Vedic Period (c. 1500–1000 BCE)

2. Early Vedic Period (c. 1500–1000 BCE)

2.1 The Four Vedas

There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, and the Atharvaveda. The Vedic hymns were composed by rishis (male seers) and rishikas (female seers) in Vedic Sanskrit, originally recited orally in the Sapta Sindhava region — the land of the seven rivers in northwest India. The early Vedic literature refers primarily to Books II–VII of the Rigveda (c. 1500–1000 BCE), while the later Vedic literature (c. 1000–500 BCE) includes Books I, VIII, IX, and X of the Rigveda; the Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas; and the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.

1. Rigveda Samhita

The Rigveda is the oldest document of India and among the most ancient texts in the world. It is the knowledge of the songs of praise (rik) and consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas) arranged in 10 books (mandalas). Books II–VII are the oldest and are called the Family Books (kula mandalas), each attributed by tradition to a particular family of sages. Books I, VIII, IX, and X are later compositions. Despite its ritual content, the Rigveda has been used by historians to reconstruct themes like the pastoral economy, the position of the clan-chief (raja), the vish (clan community), meanings of terms like bhaga (share/tribute) and bali (offering), and early social formations. The famous Battle of Ten Kings (Dasharajna) described in Book VII reveals inter-tribal rivalries of the period.

2. Yajurveda Samhita

The Yajurveda is the knowledge of the sacrificial formulas (yajus) for worship-rituals. It contains instructions for major yajnas: the Agnihotra (seasonal oblation of butter and milk to fire, welcoming Spring, Monsoon, and Autumn), the Vajapeya (cup-of-strength ritual on a king's victory, offering butter and sura to fire), the Rajasuya (royal coronation ritual), and the Agnichayana (construction of fire altars, the largest in the shape of an outspread eagle dedicated to Agni). A significant verse in the Shukla Yajurveda lists important crops: wheat, rice, barley, sesame, millets, sorghum, and kidney-beans — crucial evidence of agricultural knowledge. The Yajurveda also contains the largest collection of primary Upanishads, including the Brihadaranyaka, Katha, Isha, Maitri, Taittiriya, and Shvetashvatara. It is divided into the Shukla (white/bright, well-arranged) and Krishna (dark/black, mingled) Yajurveda.

3. Samaveda Samhita

The Samaveda is the knowledge of the songs or melodies (saman). It is sometimes described as the musical version of the Rigveda, as all but 75 of its verses are borrowed from the Rigveda — but these 75 carry melodic novelty and musical creativity. The roots of Indian classical music lie in the Samaveda's sonic and structural dimensions. It mentions instruments like the Vina (lute). Musical rules are encoded in the Gandharva-Veda, an Upaveda (supplement) of the Samaveda.

4. Atharvaveda Samhita

The Atharvaveda spans 20 books covering: incantations, spells, and charms for healing illnesses and injuries (Books 1–7); rites of passage such as upanayana (initiation into learning), marriage, and funerals (Books 13–18); royal rituals and the duties of court-priests; and herbs and nature-derived potions as medicine. Its contents offer a window into everyday social and cultural mores of the Vedic period, including early medical knowledge that contributed to the Ayurvedic tradition.

2.2 Rigvedic Society: Tribes, Women, and Economy

Early Vedic society was organised in janas (clans or tribes). The Rigveda alone lists over 30 such janas — including the Bharatas, the Purus, the Kurus, the Yadus, and the Turvashas — each associated with a particular region of the northwest subcontinent. The jana was the primary unit of social identity.

The economy was predominantly pastoral: cattle were the primary measure of wealth, and semi-nomadic mobility was common. However, the Vedic texts mention multiple occupations — agriculturist, weaver, potter, builder, carpenter, healer, dancer, barber, and priest — indicating a more diverse livelihood base. The term gotra (literally "cow-pen") reflects the centrality of cattle in social organisation.

The position of women in early Vedic society was relatively elevated. Vedic hymns were composed by both rishis and rishikas (female seers). The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad records the celebrated philosophical debate between the rishika Gargi and the sage Yajnavalkya, demonstrating women's intellectual participation. Women could attend assemblies and participate in yajna alongside their husbands. Widow remarriage (niyoga) was practised.

The Vedic worldview was governed by ritam — truth and cosmic order in human life and the cosmos — which the deities and seers together sustained. The last mantras of the Rigveda call for unity among people: "Come together, speak together; common be your mind, may your thoughts agree... United be your purpose, united your heart."