The Delhi Sultanate — Part 2: The Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty (1206–1290)

2. The Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty (1206–1290)

The first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate is variously known as the Slave dynasty, the Ilbari dynasty, or the Mamluk dynasty (from the Arabic mamluk, meaning 'owned' or 'slave'). Its rulers were either former slaves or sons of slaves.

2.1 Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210)

Aibak had served as Muhammad Ghori's viceroy since the 1190s, administering India from Lahore. His brief reign was consumed by the need to establish political survival: he moved the capital to Lahore to prevent Yalduz's encroachment from the northwest. He initiated construction of the Qutb Minar (named after the Sufi saint Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki) and the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque — the first mosque built in Delhi. An inscription at the mosque records that materials from 27 Hindu and Jain temples were used in its construction.

Aibak earned the title Lakh Baksh ('giver of lakhs') for his generosity. He died in 1210 playing chaugan (polo) in Lahore. His son Aram Shah briefly succeeded him but was ousted by the nobility in favour of Iltutmish.

2.2 Iltutmish (1210–1236) — Consolidation of the Sultanate

Iltutmish — a former slave of Aibak and his son-in-law — is rightly considered the real founder and consolidator of the Delhi Sultanate. He moved the capital from Lahore back to Delhi and spent his twenty-six-year reign systematically re-establishing Sultanate authority.

Key achievements:

• Defeating Yalduz (1215): At the Battle of Tarain, Iltutmish defeated Yalduz, eliminating a major rival claimant.
• Seizing Punjab (1217): He wrested the province of Lahore from Qubacha and placed it under his own governor.
• Dealing with Qubacha (1228): Exploiting Mongol disruption of Qubacha's position, Iltutmish launched a two-pronged attack on Multan and Uchh. Defeated, Qubacha drowned himself in the Indus. Unified control over the north-west became possible.
• Rajputana: Turks reclaimed Ranthambhor, Mandor, Jalor, Bayana, and Thangir.
• Bengal: After 1225, Iltutmish turned eastward and brought Lakhnauti (Bengal) under nominal Sultanate authority.
• Iqta system: Iltutmish introduced and consolidated the iqta — transferable revenue assignments to officers (muqtis) in lieu of salary, regularly transferred after three to four years, preventing hereditary entrenchment.
• The 'Forty' (Turkan-i Chihilgani / Bandagan Shamsi): Iltutmish maintained a corps of forty loyal Turkish slave officers who helped run the empire. These men later became a political force unto themselves.
• Caliph's recognition (1229): The Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad granted Iltutmish formal recognition (yarligh), legitimising his rule and raising the Sultanate's prestige.

Iltutmish stabilised the silver coin (tanka) and copper coin (jital) currency system, and built the Iltutmish Tomb and the Hauz-i Shamsi reservoir in Delhi.

2.3 Raziya Sultana (1236–1240)

Raziya was nominated heir by her father Iltutmish — the only female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Her brief reign (1236–1240) was historically significant as a break from gender convention.

Raziya appeared in public without the veil, sat openly on the throne, and appointed Jamal-ud-din Yakut, an Abyssinian, to the post of Amir-i Akhur (Master of the Stables) — a position the Turkish nobles regarded as their exclusive domain. On the foreign-policy front, her discouraging response to a proposed anti-Mongol alliance by Hasan Qarlugh of Bamyan reflected an 'appeasement' stance towards the Mongols.

The Turkish nobility, led by remnants of the 'Forty,' rose against her repeatedly. Governors of Lahore, Badaun, Multan, and Hansi revolted. In 1240, she was captured and killed near Kaithal. Raziya's reign illustrates the deep tension between royal authority and Turkish oligarchic power.

2.4 Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266–1287) — Theory of Kingship

The period 1236–1265 saw rapid succession and domination by the 'Forty.' Four rulers occupied the throne in thirty years while real power rested with the slave officers. The fourteenth-century historian Ziauddin Barani provides a vivid account of this turbulent phase.

Balban's accession (1265) brought an iron-willed ruler. Even before his formal coronation, Balban had served as naib (regent) under Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246–1266), exercising effective control. His theory of kingship was his most distinctive contribution:

• He revived the Sasanian (Persian) theory of kingship, presenting the Sultan as the zill-i Ilahi ('shadow of God on earth').
• He introduced elaborate court ceremonials: sijda (prostration) and paibos (hand-kissing) before the Sultan.
• He abolished informal court culture and maintained rigid protocol, separating himself entirely from the nobility.
• He projected an air of inaccessibility and awe (haibat) that converted the Sultan into a symbol beyond ordinary reckoning.

Administrative reforms:

• Reorganised the diwan-i arz (military department), insisting on full musters and strict reviews.
• Suppressed the remnants of the 'Forty' ruthlessly; those showing independence were eliminated.
• Restored order in the Doab by crushing the Mewati chiefs and clearing forest tracts.

Mongol problem: Balban concentrated primarily on keeping the Mongols from advancing beyond the Beas. He reinforced the forts at Bhatinda, Sunam, and Samana. His son Prince Muhammad commanded annual expeditions against the Mongols and died defending Multan in 1285 — a blow from which Balban never fully recovered. Balban died in 1287. The subsequent intrigues among the nobles opened the way for the Khalji takeover.

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