The Delhi Sultanate — Part 3: The Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320)

3. The Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320)

The Khalji takeover in 1290 was a significant political event. The Khaljis had occupied important positions throughout the Sultanate period (for example, Bakhtiyar Khalji was the muqti of Bengal), but were viewed as ethnically distinct from the mainline Turkish ruling class. The change represented a broadening of the ruling elite.

3.1 Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290–1296)

Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khalji was an elderly noble when he captured the throne in 1290. His six-year reign was characterised by moderation and hesitation:

• He adopted a conciliatory approach towards the Afghan nobility and extended clemency even to rebels such as Malik Chhajju (1290).
• He raided Devagiri (1293) for the first time, returning with considerable wealth.
• He lacked both the will and resources for large-scale territorial expansion.

In 1296, Jalal-ud-din was murdered by his nephew Alauddin Khalji at Kara (near modern Allahabad), where Alauddin had been appointed governor. Alauddin had just returned from a surprise raid on Devagiri with enormous wealth, which he used to bribe the army and secure the throne.

3.2 Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316) — Conquests, Market Reforms, Administrative Measures

Alauddin Khalji stands as the most powerful and administratively innovative ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. His twenty-year reign witnessed the maximum territorial expansion of the Sultanate during the Khalji period. He called himself Sikander Sani ('the Second Alexander') on his coins.

Conquests — North and Central India:

• Gujarat (1299): The first territorial expedition as Sultan; the army under Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan sacked the capital Anhilwara. Alp Khan was appointed governor. This campaign also brought the slave Malik Kafur to the Sultan's service.
• Ranthambhor (1300–1301): Besieged for over six months. The women performed jauhar (mass self-immolation) and Rai Hamir Dev died fighting.
• Chittor (1303): After several assaults, the fort fell; the heir apparent Khizr Khan was assigned the governorship.
• Malwa (1305): The capital Mandu fell to imperial armies; Ainul Mulk was appointed governor and soon brought Ujjain, Dhar, and Chanderi under control.
• Siwana (1309): The fort southwest of Jodhpur was captured after a prolonged siege. Rai Sital Dev was killed.
• Jalor (1309): Taken the same year; ruler Kanhar Dev killed in battle.

By the end of his first decade as Sultan, Alauddin had brought almost all of north, west, and central India under control — from Multan in the northwest to the Vindhyas, and almost all of Rajputana.

Deccan and South Indian Campaigns (Malik Kafur):

Alauddin's policy for distant kingdoms differed: he sought tribute and suzerainty rather than direct annexation. His trusted general Malik Kafur led the southern campaigns:

• Devagiri (1306–07): Ram Chandra Dev surrendered, gave tribute, gave his daughter in marriage to Alauddin, and accepted vassal status.
• Warangal (1310): Spectacular success — the booty comprised 20,000 horses, 100 elephants, and enormous treasures laden on 1,000 camels. Rai Rudra Dev accepted vassal status.
• Dwarasamudra (1311): Ballala Dev sought peace immediately.
• Ma'bar/Madurai (1311): Malik Kafur marched to Madura; Sundar Pandya had already fled. Booty included 512 elephants, 5,000 horses, and 500 mans of precious stones. Forces also attacked Srirangam, Chidambaram, and possibly Rameswaram.

The Sultanate's territory under Alauddin reached nearly from Peshawar to the southern tip of the peninsula — a feat unequalled since the Mauryas.

Market Reforms: Alauddin established four regulated markets in Delhi:

1. Grain market (Mandi)
2. Cloth, cattle, and horses market
3. Livestock market
4. Market for sundry items

Each market had a controller (shahna), record keepers, and secret intelligence agents (barids and munhiyan). Prices were fixed for all commodities; violations were punished severely. A grain reserve was maintained in Delhi. The primary purpose was to reduce military expenditure by holding down prices, allowing soldiers to be paid less without reducing their real standard of living. Barani's detailed account confirms prices in Delhi were kept stable for about fifteen years.

Military Reforms:

• Introduced dagh (branding of cavalry horses) and chehra (descriptive rolls of soldiers) to prevent corruption.
• Recruited a large standing army to counter Mongol invasions; successfully repulsed major Mongol attacks in 1299, 1303, 1306, and 1308.

Alauddin died in January 1316. After a brief interregnum under Malik Kafur, the Khalji dynasty ended in 1320 with the murder of the last Khalji ruler, Khusrau Khan, by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.