Harappan (Indus Valley) Civilisation: Origins, Features and Decline — Part 1: Introduction
Part 1: Introduction — Harappan Civilisation overview; three phases (Early 6000 BCE, Mature 2600 BCE, Late 1900 BCE); geographical spread across 2,000+ sites; five major cities — Rakhigarhi, Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Dholavira, Ganweriwala.
Ancient India — Part 2 of 5
Introduction
The Harappan Civilisation — also called the Indus Valley Civilisation or the Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation — stands as one of the earliest and most sophisticated urban cultures in the ancient world. Flourishing across a vast geographical area stretching from present-day Afghanistan to the Indian states of Gujarat and Maharashtra, it was contemporaneous with ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. The civilisation takes its name from Harappa, in present-day Pakistan's Punjab province, where it was first identified in the early twentieth century.
Archaeological evidence — bricks, beads, bones, seals, weights, pottery, copper articles — allows scholars to reconstruct a picture of a remarkably well-organised society. Yet much remains unknown: the script has not been deciphered, the nature of political authority is debated, and the causes of decline are still studied. This article provides a comprehensive account for UPSC aspirants covering Prelims, GS Paper 1, and the optional History paper.
1. Chronology and Phases
The total time span of the Harappan Civilisation ranges from approximately 6000 BCE to 1300 BCE. Recent archaeological evidence pushes the roots of early farming communities to around 7000 BCE.
Early Harappan (6000 BCE to 2600 BCE): This is the formative phase. Several pre-urban archaeological cultures existed in the region — associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture and pastoralism, and some crafts — including the Amri-Nal, Kot Diji, and Sothi-Siswal traditions. Settlements were generally small with virtually no large buildings. The gradual internal development of these communities produced the urban explosion of the Mature phase.
Mature Harappan (2600 BCE to 1900 BCE): This peak urban phase saw the development of large planned cities, standardised weights and measures, long-distance maritime trade with Mesopotamia, and widespread craft specialisation. The most iconic elements of the civilisation — the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro, the dock at Lothal, the distinctive seals and script, the standardised brick system — all belong to this phase.
Late Harappan (1900 BCE to 1300 BCE): By c. 1800 BCE, most Mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned. Simultaneously, populations dispersed into smaller settlements in Gujarat, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. The distinctive artefacts — weights, seals, special beads, long-distance trade goods, craft specialisation — disappeared. House construction deteriorated. Large public structures were no longer produced. Archaeologists describe the result as Late Harappan or successor cultures, representing a return to rural life.
Dating is established primarily through radiocarbon dating of organic remains. The identification of the same types of seals at Harappan and Mesopotamian sites confirmed contemporaneity with Mesopotamia (third millennium BCE).
2. Geographical Spread
The Harappan Civilisation extended over an enormous area — larger than ancient Egypt or Mesopotamia at its peak. Its artefacts have been found as far west as Afghanistan and Baluchistan, through Sind and Punjab (Pakistan), and eastward through the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, and as far south as Maharashtra.
More than 2,000 Harappan archaeological sites have been discovered in the Indian subcontinent. Notably, nearly two-thirds of settlements are located in the Sarasvati River basin (the Ghaggar-Hakra River in modern India and Pakistan), underlining this river's immense importance. The term Indus Valley Civilisation is now considered a misnomer since the civilisation extended well beyond the Indus region.
The five major cities are: Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India), Mohenjodaro (Sindh, Pakistan), Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), Dholavira (Gujarat, India), and Ganweriwala (Cholistan desert, Pakistan). The remaining sites are regional centres, agricultural villages, ports, and manufacturing centres. The Sarasvati basin alone contains two major cities — Rakhigarhi and Ganweriwala — plus smaller towns such as Farmana (Haryana), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Bhirrana, and Banawali (Haryana).