Harappan (Indus Valley) Civilisation: Origins, Features and Decline — Part 3: 5. Economy

5. Economy

5.1 Agriculture and Animal Husbandry

The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products. Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, and sesame. Millets are found at sites in Gujarat, while finds of rice are relatively rare. Pulses and a variety of vegetables were also grown. The Harappans were the first in Eurasia to grow cotton, which they wove into clothes.

Evidence for agriculture comes from charred grains, terracotta models of bulls (indicating use of oxen for ploughing), terracotta models of the plough found at Cholistan and Banawali (Haryana), and an excavated ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan) — associated with Early Harappan levels — where two sets of furrows at right angles suggested that two different crops were grown simultaneously.

Irrigation was probably required since most sites are in semi-arid lands. Traces of canals have been found at Shortughai (Afghanistan). Wells also provided water for irrigation. The large reservoirs at Dholavira — at least six, connected through underground drains — stored water for agriculture.

Domesticated animals included cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig. Bones of wild species such as boar, deer, and gharial are also found. Fish and fowl were consumed as well.

5.2 Crafts and Technology

Chanhudaro, a tiny settlement of less than 7 hectares, was almost exclusively devoted to craft production: bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making, and weight-making.

The variety of materials for beads was remarkable: carnelian (red, from Bharuch, Gujarat), jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience, and terracotta. Shapes were numerous — disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, segmented. The red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing the yellowish raw material. Steatite was worked when soft and then hardened by firing. Specialised drills were found at Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira.

Shell objects — bangles, ladles, inlay — were produced at the coastal settlements of Nageshwar and Balakot and transported inland. The Harappans mastered copper and bronze (copper plus tin) to make tools, vessels, and figurines. Terracotta toy bullock carts indicate overland transport. Pottery was distinctive and uniform across the civilisation.

Food processing used saddle querns of stone, with metal and terracotta vessels for mixing and cooking. The total number of wells in Mohenjodaro has been estimated at around 700, many accessible from the street for public use.

5.3 Trade (Internal and External)

Internal exchanges were regulated by the precise weight system. Seals and sealings facilitated long-distance communication: a bag of goods would have its mouth tied with rope, wet clay pressed with a seal affixed to the knot; if the sealing arrived intact, the goods had not been tampered with, and the sealing conveyed the identity of the sender.

Raw materials came from distant regions: stone from Rajasthan and Gujarat, lapis lazuli from near Shortughai (Afghanistan), carnelian from Bharuch (Gujarat), steatite from south Rajasthan and north Gujarat, copper from the Khetri region of Rajasthan, and gold possibly from south India. The Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture of the Khetri area — noted for its non-Harappan pottery and unusual wealth of copper objects — may have supplied copper to the Harappans.

For distant trade, the Harappans used land routes (bullock carts), riverine routes (the Indus and its tributaries), and maritime routes. Lothal had a large dockyard measuring 217 m x 36 m — one of the world's earliest — for receiving and sending boats, representing the first intensive maritime activity in India.

External trade reached Oman (Magan), Bahrain (Dilmun), and Mesopotamia (Meluhha). Mesopotamian texts of the third millennium BCE mention products from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood. A large Harappan jar coated with black clay found at Omani sites likely carried Harappan exports in exchange for copper. Chemical analyses show that both Omani copper and Harappan artefacts contain traces of nickel — suggesting a common source. Harappan carnelian beads have been excavated at Susa (present-day Iran). A Harappan ivory comb was found on the coast of Oman. A cylinder seal found in Bahrain carries the humped bull motif derived from the Indus region. Local Dilmun weights at Bahrain followed the Harappan weight standard.