Medieval Administrative Systems: Iqta, Mansab, Jagir and Revenue — Part 6: Mughal Central and Provincial Administration
Part 6: Mughal central admin — Diwan-i-Kul, Mir Bakhshi, Mir Saman, Sadr-us Sudur; 12 subas (1580); subadar, provincial diwan (independent), bakhshi, intelligence; sarkar/pargana/village hierarchy; Iqta vs Mansabdari comparison table.
Medieval India — Part 3 of 5
6. Mughal Central and Provincial Administration
6.1 Emperor, Wakil, Wazir, Diwan-i-Kul
The Mughal Emperor was the fountainhead of all powers; all appointments, promotions, and terminations were subject to his personal preference. The concept of jharokha darshan (Emperor's daily public appearance) reinforced quasi-divine royal authority.
Wakil and Wazir: Bairam Khan's regency (1556–60) saw unlimited powers vested in the wakil-wazir. In the 8th regnal year (1564–65), Akbar separated financial powers from the wakil and entrusted them to the diwan-i kul.
Diwan-i Kul (Finance Minister): Supervised the Imperial treasury; checked all accounts; personally inspected transactions across all departments; his seal was required for all revenue-related official papers; submitted a daily state finance report to the Emperor. The central revenue ministry had divisions: diwan-i khalisa (crown lands), diwan-i tan (cash salaries), diwan-i jagir (jagir assignments), diwan-i buyutat (royal household). The mustaufi (auditor) and mushrif (chief accountant) assisted him; the khazanadar looked after the Imperial treasury.
6.2 Mir Bakhshi and Mir Saman
Mir Bakhshi: The Mughal equivalent of the Sultanate's ariz-i mumalik. He endorsed all mansabdar appointment orders; supervised dagh (horse-branding) and chehra (muster-roll inspection); certified salary claims; presented all military matters to the Emperor; accompanied the Emperor on tours, hunts, and battlefields. Three bakhshis existed: the first (Mir Bakhshi) dealt with Princes and high Amirs; the second with lower-ranking mansabdars; the third with increments for yaumiya daran (cash-salary holders).
Mir Saman (Khan Saman): Officer in charge of the royal karkhanas (workshops). Oversaw purchase, storage, and manufacture of all articles for the royal household — from weapons to luxury goods. Directly under the Emperor; required the diwan's sanction for expenditure.
Sadr-us Sudur: Head of the ecclesiastical department; protected Shariat laws; distributed charities — wazifa (cash), suyurghal, inam, madad-i ma'ash (land grants and subsistence grants). Before Shah Jahan's reign, combined with the office of qazi-ul quzzat (chief judge). Under Aurangzeb, the two offices were separated, curtailing the sadr's power.
6.3 Provincial (Subah) Administration
In 1580, Akbar divided the Empire into 12 subas (later expanded to 15). Each suba was divided into sarkars, further into parganas and mahals. Shah Jahan added the chakla (a cluster of several parganas) as an intermediate unit.
Subadar (Provincial Governor): Directly appointed by the Emperor; typical tenure about three years. Responsible for welfare, law and order, encouragement of agriculture and trade, and public works (sarais, wells, water reservoirs).
Provincial Diwan: Appointed by the Emperor, independent of the subadar. Head of the revenue department in the suba; supervised revenue collection; maintained a roznamcha (daily register); extended taqavi loans; this independence from the subadar was a deliberate check on provincial autonomy.
Provincial Bakhshi: Appointed on the recommendation of the Mir Bakhshi; inspected horses and soldiers of mansabdars in the suba; issued paybills; prepared lists of deceased mansabdars.
Intelligence: Darogha-i Dak managed the imperial postal system through dak chowkis and mewras (postal runners). Waqai navis, waqai nigars, and sawanih nigar sent confidential reports directly to the Emperor, providing a check on provincial officials.
Sarkar level: Faujdar (executive head; law and order; controlling refractory zamindars) and Amalguzar/Amil (revenue assessment and collection).
Pargana level: Shiqqdar (executive), Amil (revenue), Qanungo (hereditary records officer; maintained land records for up to a hundred years), Chaudhuri (leading zamindar; collection and surety for lesser zamindars), Fotadar/Khazandar (treasurer), Karkun/Bitikchi (accountant).
Village level: Muqaddam (headman; received 2.5% of revenue as remuneration) and Patwari (land records and holdings). Under Sher Shah, two karkuns (one for Hindi records, one for Persian); from 1583–84 Persian became the sole language of accounts.
7. Comparison: Iqta vs Mansabdari System
| Feature | Iqta System (Sultanate) | Mansabdari System (Mughal) |
|---|---|---|
| Holder | Muqti / Wali / Iqtadar | Mansabdar |
| Assignment | Territorial revenue | Rank-linked pay (jagir or cash) |
| Hereditary? | No (became yes under Firuz) | No; lapses at death (escheat) |
| Transferable? | Yes, every 3–4 years | Jagirs transferred every 3–4 years |
| Military obligation | Maintain and furnish troops to Sultan | Maintain contingent per sawar rank; present at dagh-o-chehra |
| Central oversight | Khwaja accountant; taufir enhancements; stringent audit | Mir Bakhshi's dagh and chehra inspections |
| Surplus to centre | Fawazil to diwan-i wizarat | Khalisa revenue to treasury; jagir for mansabdar's salary |
| Rank system | No formal numerical rank | Dual rank: Zat and Sawar |
| Scope | Military governors mainly | All civil and military officers (except judiciary) |