Harappan (Indus Valley) Civilisation: Origins, Features and Decline — Part 5: 9. Art and Craft

9. Art and Craft

Seals: The Harappan seal — typically made of steatite, measuring a few centimetres square, bearing animal motifs and undeciphered script — is the most distinctive artefact of the civilisation. Animal motifs include the unicorn (the most common), humped bull, elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, and buffalo.

Figurines: Terracotta figurines of women (mother goddess figures) and animals (bulls, dogs, monkeys) are common. The most celebrated sculpture is the Dancing Girl — a bronze figurine from Mohenjodaro, 10.8 cm high, depicted in a casual, confident pose with bangles covering one arm — a style still visible in parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Bronze and Copper Objects: Copper and bronze were used for tools (chisels, knives), vessels, and figurines. A bronze chisel found at Dholavira reflects sophisticated metallurgy. Copper mirrors have also been found.

Pottery: Harappan pottery is distinctive and uniform across the civilisation — well-fired, often painted with geometric and floral designs. A design on a pot from Lothal appears to depict a narrative version of the thirsty crow story, suggesting the existence of narrative art.

Beads and Ornaments: Beads of carnelian, jasper, crystal, gold, and other materials were produced in a wide variety of shapes. A Harappan ivory comb found on the Omani coast indicates the export of luxury goods. Terracotta toy carts, terracotta whistles, and stone game-boards (found at Dholavira) reflect everyday and leisure life.

10. Decline: Theories

The decline of the Harappan Civilisation is one of the most debated topics in ancient Indian history. By approximately 1900 BCE, the Mature Harappan phase had ended; by 1800 BCE, most Mature Harappan sites in Cholistan were abandoned. Populations dispersed into smaller rural sites.

Aryan Invasion Theory: R.E.M. Wheeler (1947) argued that the Rigveda's references to Indra as puramdara (destroyer of forts) and the discovery of skeletons in Mohenjodaro indicated a large-scale military invasion by Aryan peoples. However, archaeologist George Dales (1964) challenged this by demonstrating that the skeletons at Mohenjodaro did not belong to the same period; there was no destruction level covering the latest period of the city, no sign of extensive burning, and no bodies of warriors in armour. The invasion theory has been largely discredited.

More recently, archaeogenetic research at Rakhigarhi — conducted by the Deccan College (Pune), CCMB (Hyderabad), and Harvard Medical College — extracted DNA from Harappan skeletal remains. Analysis showed that the Harappans are the indigenous people of this region, with genetic roots going back to 10,000 BCE. The genetic continuity without any break rules out large-scale immigration. Reconstructed 3D facial features of Harappan individuals show remarkable similarity with the modern population of Haryana.

Climate Change: A broad climatic change from around 2200 BCE caused reduced rainfall and a drier phase across much of the world, making agriculture more difficult and reducing food supply to cities.

Drying of the Sarasvati River: The Sarasvati River (modern Ghaggar-Hakra) dried up in its central basin, causing cities along it — such as Kalibangan and Banawali — to be abandoned.

Ecological Degradation and Deforestation: Overuse of the landscape, deforestation for fuel in brick-firing, and soil exhaustion may have contributed to agricultural decline.

Flooding: Excessive floods, possibly caused by tectonic changes in river courses, may have periodically inundated cities such as Mohenjodaro.

Internal Decline: The collapse of a unifying political authority is evidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads and pottery, and the shift to local weight systems. The civilisation appears to have fragmented gradually rather than ending in a single catastrophic event.

No single explanation suffices for the entire civilisation. Different factors were likely decisive in different regions.

11. Harappan Civilisation vs Later Vedic Culture

Feature	Harappan Civilisation (2600-1900 BCE)	Later Vedic Culture (c. 1000-600 BCE)
Settlement	Planned urban cities; grid layout	Largely village-based
Script / Writing	Undeciphered script (375-400 signs)	No script; oral Sanskrit tradition
Political Structure	Unclear; possibly city-states or egalitarian	Tribal confederacies; monarchies
Economy	Urban crafts; long-distance maritime trade	Pastoral-agricultural; cattle as wealth
Religion	Mother goddess; Pashupati; ritual bathing; fire altars	Vedic fire sacrifices (yajnas); Indra, Agni, Varuna
Social Structure	Relatively egalitarian; same housing quality	Varna system emerging
Metallurgy	Bronze and copper extensively used	Iron introduced in Later Vedic period
Trade	Maritime; Mesopotamia, Oman, Bahrain	Mainly internal; gold (hiranya) referenced
Housing	Brick houses; standardised bricks	Mud and thatch dwellings
Decline / Transition	c. 1900 BCE onwards	Transition to Mahajanapada period c. 600 BCE